Once Upon a Decade 1-10 AD

Great Empires and Big Ideas

The Han dynasty had started in 202 BC and is considered a golden age in Chinese history and the foundation of Chinese culture. Since the reign of Emperor Wu from 141 to 87 BC, Confucianism was the official state ideology in education and courtpolitics. But the influence of Daoism as a kind of counterbalancing force remained strong, while Buddhism was making inroads into China as well.

In 9 AD though, the Han Dynasty was briefly interrupted by emperor Wang Mang’s Xin dynasty. Born into one of his country’s oldest noble families in about 45 BC, Wang Mang was a Confucianist scholar and politician who enjoyed popularity among the peasants.
Between 2 and 5 AD the Yellow River had changed its course, with devastating effects. Together with the civil wars and corruption of the imperial court, this led to discontent and unrest among the peasantry.

In an intensive propaganda campaign Wang Mang claimed that Heaven was granting him the mandate for a new dynasty. He was already acting as regent for child emperor Ruzi Ying, but when the infant was only 4 years old, Wang Mang seized total control of the empire in a brutal coup.

Another child- emperor had gone before young prince Ruzi Ying. This was 11th emperor Ping of Han, who’s reign lasted from 1 AD to 6 AD. In that year, 14 year old Ping was poisoned by Wang Mang.

The Roman Empire was ruled by an emperor with a divine mandate as well, although in this case he was the first of a long list of rulers to come. As the heir to Julius Caesar, who had been assassinated in 44 BC, emperor
Augustus had begun his reign in 27 BC.

By the year 1, Augustus had almost doubled the size of the empire bringing Egypt, northern Spain, the Alps and much of the Balkans under Roman control. But in 9 AD the Romans suffered a military setback, when three Roman legions were destroyed by a German army led by Hermann. The results of this battle in the Teutoburgerwald ensured the continued German independence from Rome.

Another eternal adversary of the Roman Empire was the Parthian Empire, better known today by the names Persia or Iran.

Further to the east laid the Indo-Greek Kingdom, a legacy of the conquests of Alexander the Great in the 4th century BC. But it was now being replaced by the Indo-Scythians, a group of nomadic peoples of Scythian origin, who were migrating from Central Asia southward into northern and western India.

There they met with sedentary farmers wich resulted in a constant war of competition. In human history this has been a recurring struggle already expressed in the ancient story of Cain and Abel.

The Satavahana dynasty was one of several kingdoms that played an important role on the Indian subcontinent. Further to the east, in South East Asia, we see the rise of the Funan. This Hindu kingdom had trade relations with both India ánd China.

Around the Pacific Ocean we find a diversity of civilizations large and small as well. On the Korean peninsula, for instance, the period of The Three Kingdoms is beginning. And in Central America, several ancient civilizations have also developed their own fascinating cultures.

Obviously, the beginning of the Western calendar is marked by the birth of Christ. This event could therefore be seen as the most defining moment of the first decade. Of course no one had ever heard of Christianity at that point in time.

Although Jeruzalem was part of the Roman Empire, the Judaic traditions were alive and well. In 37 BC, the Second Temple had been completely restored and expanded by Herod the Great, the Jewish King.

The period of the Second Temple began in the 5th century BC when Cyrus the Great freed the Jewish people from exile in Babylonia. Cyrus, who was the first Persian emperor, then also helped the Jews rebuild their temple, which had been destroyed by the Babylonians.

The Persians themselves worshipped Ahura Mazda, or Lord of Wisdom. Their religion was named Zoroastrianism after its founder Zarathustra, and has been of great influence on a number of religious and philosophical belief systems. Some of its unique features are still familiar concepts today. Those include its monotheism, messianism and belief in free will, as well as its dualistic cosmology of light vs. Darkness, angels vs. demons and heaven vs. hell.

By the first decade AD though, the strongest cultural influence in the Middle East came from the Greeks. But of no less importance as a religious and philosophical center was India, where Buddhism and Hinduismcontinued to develop.

New ideas and philosophies were forming as a result of cultural exchange and close trade relations. These blended with the ancient traditions, some of which are still honored today, such as animism, ancestor worship, and sjamanism. In this view, Christianity arose from the cross-fertilization that took place between Western, Eastern and Jewish religions.

The spread of knowledge and science through word and writing was stimulated by the relative security and stability of empires like China and Rome. These early forms of globalism created the need for an overarching narrative to replace the confusing patchwork of local gods and beliefs. For the time being though, the reigns of Isis, Jupiter, Wodan and the like were still largely unchallenged.

There had not yet been very much urbanization and most people lived in rural areas. Estimates of the total world population range from about 200 to 300 million
At the start of the decade, as recorded in the tax census of 2 AD, the population of the Han Empire stood at 57 million. This put it ahead of the Roman Empire with around 44 million people. But while the Romans continued to grow at a steady pace, China’s population declined sharply as natural disasters, famine, and war took their toll.

The degree of literacy is deemed to be quite low, although scrolls of Egyptian papyrus had been written for thousands of years. But the possession of these works was mainly limited to the wealthy and well educated elites.

The centuries before had produced a host of scientists and engineers, including Socrates, Plato and Confucius. Agricultural tools, weapons and instruments had been manufactured from iron for centuries too, and this development continued.

Particularly important for agriculture were the many innovations in water management, such as mills, pumps, aqueducts, and sanitation. The engineers in the fields of water management and architecture were extremely competent. And not just in the Roman Empire: these developments were boosting the economies of India, China and Central America too.

Once Upon a Decade 10-20 AD

The Mandate from Heaven

The next decade of our journey through world history starts in the year 11 AD. From the reign of the legendary king Yu the Great 2000 years earlier, until the abdication of the Last Emperor in 1912, China was ruled by a series of successive dynasties. We are now in the period of Emperor Wang Mang’s Sjin Dynasty.

The idea of a Mandate from Heaven was already developed long ago by the Duke of Zhou. It says that a new dynasty is established by a right and just ruler. But those who succeed him become more and more corrupt and inept. This immorality removes the dynasty’s divine favor and is manifested by floods, rebellions, and foreign invasions.

So how did Wang Mang fare? Well, his dynasty would last only 14 years. Despite, or perhaps as a result of his sweeping reforms and staunch allegiance to Confucianism. Confucius was a philosopher and teacher concerned with the preservation of age-old traditions and values.

After Confucius’ death in 479 BC, several of his disciples compiled his wisdom and carried on his work. Around 100 BC, Confucianism was already established as the state philosophy. The golden rule of Confucianism is: Do not do to others, what you do not want done to yourself.

All people are essentially equal and capable of becoming a better person by working to develope the 5 core virtues. To achieve this, education is of the highest importance.

Confucius believed in a fundamental order and cosmic harmony to which the individual is subordinated. The family is at the heart of his ethics. Here, filial piety and obedience are the most important virtues.

Within the family unit, all individuals fall within a very rigid hierarchy. But those in superior positions also have a clearly defined role to play, in providing care, support and guidance to the subordinate members.

As within the family unit, so are loyalty and obedience to the authorities the highest virtues on a national scale. At the same time the rulers are to guarantee justice, security and economic stability to the citizens. If a ruler would fail in that duty, then a righteous person has the right to revolt. Such a person is considered a “Son of Heaven,” and Wang Mang undoubtedly regarded himself as one.

Wang Mang was a convinced Confucianist. After he seized power in 9 AD he nationalized all land ownership. In this way he wanted to align the distribution of land with the legendary golden age of the Zhou Dynasty.

But his land reforms were much criticized. So much so that criticism was punishable by exile. Nevertheless his sweeping reforms would last only a few years.

Meanwhile, catastrophic floods continued to put the new dynasty to the test. The Yellow River gets its name from the large amounts of fine yellow sediment colouring its water. The large amounts of deposits in the extensive flatlands on the lower reaches of the river have always made that area very susceptible to flooding. Attempts to tame the river with dams may even worsen the problem in the long run.

In 11 AD the Yellow River changed its course, devastating China’s most populous area. Displacement and famine, together with droughts and disease, caused the death of an estimated 25 million people. Perhaps half the total Chinese population at that time. This gave rise to the prophecy that Wang Mang was no longer a Son of Heaven and that the Han dynasty was about to be restored.

As destructive as the natural disasters Wang Mang had to deal with were, his own economic and financial policies made it even worse. The Emperor elevated his thoughts into rigid laws with such inflexibility, that it could only lead to more corruption among officials.

The replacement of the Han gold standard with a bronze coinage produced rampant inflation and counterfeiting. When Wang Mang ordered the re-call of all the gold in the empire, thousands of tons of the precious metal were seized and stored in the imperial treasury.

The dramatic decrease in the availability of gold was felt as far away as Rome. There, Roman emperor Augustus was forced to ban the trade in expensive silk fom China for lack of gold coins.

By the second decade, emperor Augustus had completely reorganized Roman life throughout the empire. His reforms of taxation and the financial system brought stability and stimulated trade and commerce. It also allowed him to invest heavily in construction projects, aqueducts, and the vast network of Roman roads.

He appealed to Roman citizens by claiming that he led a frugal and modest life. He called himself Princeps, no more than the first citizen. Someone who served only the interests of the Roman Republic.

In reality though, the Republic ended with him. He was in fact the first Roman emperor, and also the most revered among them. In 14 AD, at the age of 75, Augustus died of natural causes. That same year, the Senate enrolled him among the gods of the Roman state.

In his will, Augustus had designated Tiberius as his successor. Tiberius’ mother, Livia Drusilla, had separated from his biological father in 38 BC to marry Augustus. Thus, when Augustus became Emperor in 27 BC, Livia became the empress. After Augustus died and was succeeded by Tiberius, his mother Livia continued to exert her political influence.

Before Tiberius received his laurels at the age of 55, he had a brilliant career with many military successes. But as a ruler he was said to be suspicious, somber and reclusive. It was as if he had never really wanted to be the Emperor.

Indeed, his life at the service of Imperator Augustus seemed to have brought him little joy. In 11 BC he was forced to divorce from his beloved wife Vipsania Agrippina in order to marry Julia, the daughter and only biological child of Augustus. But it was an unhappy marriage until it was finally dissolved in 2 BC. Tiberius and his family were then adopted by Augustus.

In highly developed civilizations such as the Roman Empire, slavery was widespread and played a major role in the economy. Unlike the more egalitarian tribal societies, these civilizations were composed of sharply defined social classes.

In more primitive societies where agriculture played only a minor role, slave labor was relatively rare. Nevertheless, tribal societies such as the Germanic tribes may well have had slaves too, usually prisoners of war. But one might even have lost his freedom, by playing a game of dice.

An estimated one-third of Rome’s population performed slave labor. Mostly in agriculture but also in domestic work or other professions. They were mostly foreigners, but color of skin played no role in this.

Slave markets flourished in every city of the Empire. Reason for Augustus to impose a 2 percent tax on the sale of slaves. This was estimated to bring in about 5 million sesterces per year, which indicates about 250,000 sales. The special tax was raised to 4% in 43 AD.

In some cases, as for instance in Central America, a person who defaulted on his debt could be sentenced to work as a slave until the debts were paid off. Prisoners of war served as slaves for the construction of temples or perhaps as human sacrifices.

In China, the development of a system of landlords and peasants led to less slave labor being used in agriculture. The Han dynasty even passed laws to limit the posession of slaves. As a result, each king or duke was allowed to own a maximum of 200 slaves. An imperial princess was allowed a maximum of 100 slaves, and other officials were limited to 30 slaves each.

Further to the west, the Indo-Scythians continued to expand their influence on the Indian subcontinent. In the holy city of Mathura, the birthplace of Krishna, we see a sandstone capital on top of a pillar. This Indo-Scythian lion capital displays a Triratnah, symbolizing the Three Jewels of Buddhism: the Buddha, the Dharma and the Sanga.

It is also covered with inscriptions in the Kharoshthi script of northwestern India. It describes, for instance, the donation by a Scythian queen of a stupa with a relic of the Buddha.

On the coast of Peru we encounter the Nazca. They are known for the mysterious Nazca lines. But they also build underground aqueducts to provide water for irrigation and domestic purposes. Several dozen of these “puquios” are still in use today.

More than two thousand years earlier, the same area was populated by the Caral civilization. This period was parallel to the heydays of Egypt and the rise of urbanization in Mesopotamia. The Caral Supe complex was one of their largest cities and is dated to around 3,000 BC.

To provide for their food, these peoples relied mainly on fishing rather than agriculture. Strikingly, no signs of warfare such as walled cities or weapons of war have been found.

See you! In the next decade

Once Upon a Decade 20-30 AD

For Power, Profit or the People

In the third decade, Tiberius is getting tired of Roman politics. In China, the Han Dynasty is making a new start. We take a closer look at Hinduism. And we wonder if the Amazon was once a densely populated, highly developed region.

The Han dynasty was founded in 202 BC by a humble farmer’s son named Liu Bang. After the fall of the Chin dynasty in 206 BC, he managed to climb further and further up the ladder until all his enemies were defeated. As the Emperor Gaozu of Han, he established a strong central authority, laying the foundation for China’s Golden Age.

But there was one enemy he could not defeat. This was a powerful confederation of nomadic tribes called the Xiongnou. After being defeated at the Battle of Baiden, Emperor Gaozu was forced to sign a peace treaty. This involved giving a princess in marriage to the Xiongnuking and sending money and gifts, more and more each year.

This peace lasted until 133 BC. From then on, the Han Empire had become so strong that it could defeat the Xiongnu and extend its power to the North and West. It was not until the turbulent period at the beginning of the first century that the Xiongnu saw opportunities for themselves again. In the short period that Wang Mang’s regime replaced the Han Dynasty, they regained control of the western territories and other neighboring peoples.

Their leader Huduershi, who ruled from 18 to 48 AD, stopped paying his annual tributes. He even felt that this relationship could be reversed again and the Chinese should start paying tributes to him instead. But this was not to be the case.

For it was not the Xiongnu who would take down Wang Mang. A combination of natural disasters and wrong economic policies caused uprisings among the peasantry. Several groups of peasant rebels emerged.

The largest armies were the “Red Eyebrows” and the Lülin, or Green Forest. At first Wang Mang gained some victories, but he was completely defeated in 23 AD at the Battle of Kunyang. Liu Xiu, one of the many descendants of the Liu family laying claim to the imperial throne, had united his forces with the Lülin.

Wang Mang’s armies were numerically stronger but could not break the resistance of the city of Kunyang. Liu Xiu managed to bring in reinforcements and break the siege of the demoralized Xin forces. Severe weather and mudslides completed the collapse of Wang Mang’s army.

Once news of the outcome of the Battle of Kunyang spread throughout the empire, the rebellion was unstoppable. That same year, the capital city of Chang’an was sacked and Wang Mang was killed. After some internal power struggles, Liu Xiu was crowned Emperor Guangwu of Han in 25 AD.

This new period is called the Eastern Han Dynasty because the new capital Luoyang was located east of the old one. In 27 AD, Liu Xiu finally defeated the irregular and corrupted army of the Red Eyebrows as well.

But the territories in the West were still lost. As a result, the Silk Road was cut off, and China and the Western world became even more apart from each other. In the West, Emperor Tiberius ruled over the powerful and prosperous Roman empire that Augustus had left him in 14 AD.

Tiberius took good care of the treasury, but he seemed to have had a difficult relationship with the Roman senate. He was known as “tristissimus hominum,” the gloomiest of men. What might once have been a healthy dose of distrust in Roman politics gradually developed into paranoia, cruelty and sexual depravity. No one was safe.

But were the accusations justified that Tiberius had murdered his nephew Germanicus, who was supposed to be his successor? Germanicus had gotten his name from his great military successes against the Germanic tribes. Tiberius was adopted by Augustus in 4 AD, Germanicus was in turn adopted by Tiberius as the next in line.

But in 19 AD, Germanicus died under suspicious circumstances. According to himself, he was being poisoned. In 23 AD, tragedy struck again when Tiberius only biological son and natural successor, Drusus, suddenly died. The leader of the Praetorian Guard, a man named Sejanus, was suspected of having poisoned him.

The Praetorian Guard served as personal bodyguards and intelligence agents for the Roman emperors. Sejanus was Tiberius most trusted ally, but secretly, he saw himself as a possible heir to the throne. Yet Tiberius left the administration more and more to Sejanus and barely showed up in Rome anymore.

In 26 AD he withdrew completely to the island of Capri near Pompeii, a traditional resort for Rome’s upper class. Although these wealthy families may have valued land ownership and agriculture more than trade or commerce, they certainly did not turn down big profits. Large quantities of gold coins from emperors such as Augustus and Tiberius, for example, have been found as far away as India

On the Indian subcontinent, war with the nomads from the North continued, as it did in China and Rome. Along with Buddhism, which played an important role on both sides, the other branches of Hinduism continued to develop. Some sort of monotheism emerged as the three principles Vishnu, Shiva and Brahman became a Holy Trinity.

Vishnu does appear in a number of Avatars though, the most important of which are Rama and Krishna. Lord Krishna teaches his yoga in the Bhagavad Gita, or Song of God. This scripture probably dates from the first century BC, and appears to be a later addition to the great and much older epic known as the Mahabharata.

As Arjuna’s charioteer, Krishna delivers what we today would call a motivational speech. He talks about karma and rebirth and asks the question: can the negative impact your actions may have on your soul be averted through inaction, that is, by not acting at all?

Krishna argues that while this is a respectable yoga, we should act in this world. The way to do this is by separating one’s actions from their results. In other words, don’t let benefits for yourself, wether it’s about money, status, power or whatever, determine your choices. Just do or say what is right.

In the daily struggle for survival, though, it is inevitable that material concerns will often prevail. Consider for example the economic development of the Amazon region. But the clearing of forest lands that comes with it, has also revealed some surprising discoveries.

It is now generally accepted that several millions of people lived in the area, and that there were a number of highly developed cities. But that was before the arrival of the Spanish and the devastating epidemics they brought with them.

Until then, those peoples had been living there for thousands of years without disturbing the delicate balances in this sensitive area. Without the ecosystem of plants, trees, fungi etc, the soils in the Amazon lose their fertility very quickly. To deal with this problem, the ancient peoples used “Terra Preta,” or black earth, which is found in about 10% of the area.

The only Spanish conquistador who was able to bear witness to all this was Francisco de Orellana in the 1540’s. In search of food, he and his men had drifted out too far and were forced to descend the entire Amazon River.

But Orellana’s stories were met with disbelief. Yet, is account of an attack by female warriors gave the river its modern day name, as he compared them to the Scythian Amazons of Greek mythology.

Once Upon a Decade 30-40 AD

Around the World in 10 Years

The 30s of the first century are best known for the crucifixion of Christ. All the more reason to take a dive into Plato’s philosophies. Meanwhile in Rome, Caligula becomes the new emperor. We pay a visit to the Celts, then travel to the North American nations. And we end our journey in Africa, the cradle of so many cultures.

From 6 AD, Palestine was a Roman province, governed by a Roman prefect, along with local Jewish leaders. Pontius Pilate was particularly harsh and insensitive to Jewish traditions. A group of uncompromising Jewish rebels, called the Zealots, opposed his administration and its collection of taxes. As a punishment for such rebellion against the state, crucifixion was standard practice in the Roman empire.

The language that the historical Jesus spoke is believed to be Aramaic. He himself left nothing in writing though, and it wasn’t until 70 AD that the first gospels appeared. Those were written in Greek, which was then the common language in the Eastern part of the Roman Empire. Even though Jesus and his followers may have resisted this Greek cultural influence, it certainly favored the rise of Christianity and has remained a strong presence.

Plato was a student of Socrates. In 387 AD he founded the Academia, an institution for science, philosophy and higher education. One of its members was Aristotle, who was also a teacher of Alexander the Great.

This Macedonian king would go on to conquer Persia and parts of India. Through the dialogues written by Plato, Socrates argues that the impermanent, physical world is the product of a self-moving, universal principle that itself has neither beginning nor end.

Pythagoras is another giant on whose shoulders Plato stood. He held that all things are number, and the cosmos comes from numerical principles. Thus, the vision emerged of a perfect, intangible mathematical world underlying the superficial and chaotic day to day reality.

Imagine a cave with prisoners chained in such a way that they can only see the wall in front of them. All that the prisoners perceive in their lives are the shadows and echoes of the reality that takes place outside their view.

If a prisoner were to be led out of the cave into the light, it would take some time before he could make sense of what he was seeing. Once accustomed to this brightness, upon returning to the cave, the darkness would once again blind him for a while. And no one there would be able to understand him.

When it comes to the soul, Plato paints the image of a chariot pulled by two horses. The charioteer represents the mind, or logos, which is located in the head; one horse represents the spirit, located in the chest; the other represents the lusts and desires that originate from the belly. The soul itself is indestructible and continues its neverending cycle of reincarnation.

The image of a chariot reminds us of Krishna, Arjuna’s charioteer whom we met in the previous episode. The same picture is indeed painted in various Hindu texts dating back to the 5th century BC.

Know the atman as the lord of the chariot, the body as only the chariot, know also intelligence as the driver; know the mind as the reins. The senses are called the horses; the objects which they perceive are their paths;

Around 600 BC the Athenian Democracy was founded by the great poet Solon. By law, he divided the citizenry into 4 social classes, not based on descent but on wealth and income. Slaves and people from outside Athens were excluded. Women were also not allowed to participate in this democracy, but all the others were expected to actively engage in a court or institution.

Plato was not a big fan of democracy. In his view, it’s like being ruled by the belly rather than the intellect. He specifically warned against politicians who gather a personal guard around them, for this already begins the establishment of their tyranny.

In his story about the mythical empire of Atlantis, Plato gives us his vision of what an ideal, utopian society should look like. To this day, his account has remained enormously influential. For this reason alone, Plato deserves the title of greatest storyteller of all times.

Emperor Tiberius had not visited Rome since 27 AD. Perhaps to avoid his mother Livia who played a central role in politics and state affairs. Even when Livia died in 29 AD, Tiberius stayed in Capri on the pretext of being too busy.

Meanwhile, he left the administration to his friend Sejanus, the leader of the Praetorian Guard. Since the time of Sulla, no weapons had been allowed to carry in the city of Rome. Even the army camped and practiced on the field of Mars outside the city.
To have a permanent bodyguard anyway, Augustus created a new elite unit called the Praetorian Guard.

Plato’s concerns once again proved justified. For under Sejanus it quickly evolved from Guardians of the Divine into the strong arm of government, that would go on to determine the rise and fall of emperors to come. It wasn’t until 312 AD that the Praetorian Guard was finally disbanded and their barracks at the Castra Praetoria destroyed.

Eventually, even Tiberius lost his confidence in Sejanus, and he and his entourage were executed in 31 AD. Macro, who would become the new head of the Praetorian Guard, served as Tiberius’ instrument of judgment. Together they led a true reign of terror until Tiberius’ death in 37 AD. What role the ambitious Macro had in Tiberius’ death is unclear. All we know is, that he had already prepared Caligula to become the new emperor.

From around 600 BC, Western Europe became more and more dominated by various Celtic speaking tribes speaking a Celtic language. Today, there’s only a few places left where these ancient Indo-European languages are still being spoken.

The Gauls, as they were known by the Romans, were famous for their craftsmanship and metalwork. They were also feared for their terrifying war tactics and weaponry. This led the Romans to innovate and use plywood to produce shields that could withstand the force of the large Celtic swords.

In 390 AD, a Gallic tribe defeated a Roman army and plundered Rome. By now though, most of the once proud and independent Gauls were subject to Rome.

The ancient Celts passed on their traditions and secret knowledge only through spoken word. This may well be one of the reasons why the bard played such an important role in Celtic society.

There was a wide variety of elves, fairies, gods and goddesses, with each region adding its own flavor to the pantheon. There were sacred lakes and springs, as well as holy places such as ancient, megalithic monuments, even if the Celts were not the ones who built them.

They did build Burial Mounds though, but only for the very wealthy and influential in Celtic society. Ceremonies were performed by the druids in troves of trees or in temples. These high ranking individuals could be both men and women.

The druids served as healers and guardians of secret knowledge. Apparently they had a lot of political influence as well, as they were persecuted and killed by the Romans and their practices were banned.

Belenos was a widely worshipped healing god. The Romans identified him with Apollo as his name suggests a connection with henbane, known in Celtic as belenuntia. This plant possesses psycho-active properties and was one of the ingredients of a potent brew. Known as Herba Apollinaris, it was also used by the Greek priestesses of Apollo, to yield their famous oracles.

The image of a shaman, who acts as a healer and provides a gateway to a magical, spiritual world, takes us to the peoples of North America. There, we find a huge variety of tribes and nations, each with their own traditions.

There’s hundreds of languages divided into three different language groups. As to the use of writing, the Maya were the only ones who had a fully developed writing system. To communicate with each other anyway, a sign language was developed that is still in use today.

Indeed, the different peoples were connected by a common network of trade routes. This union is known as the Hopewell culture which existed until about 500 AD. It must have been a relatively peaceful period, because signs of war such as fortifications and mass graves are nowhere to be found.

The Hopewell exchange system was also a means of bringing people together for important ceremonies. Most of the ceremonial sites were concentrated in Ohio. They usually consisted of a burial mound and a large geometric complex.

In Hopewell societies, most of the dead were cremated. Only very important figures, perhaps members of a wealthy family, received a burial. The Hopewell filled their burial mounds with valuable objects, like exquisitely carved statues and pipes. Residues inside some of those pipes reveal a mix of tobacco with psycho-active substances.

If we’d go back another 10,000 years or so, to the turbulent times when the ice ages ended, we find a widespread culture known today as the Clovis people. But a catastrophic comet impact that hit North America during that period had completely wiped them out. Many large mammals such as the mammoth, saber tooth tiger and giant sloth also became extinct.

In Plato’s account of Atlantis that we mentioned earlier, he placed the sinking of this great city in 9,600 BC, almost exactly the same era. Is that just a coincidence? All we know for certain is that Plato referred to the ancient knowledge of Egyptian priests as the source for his narrative.

Egypt had been part of the Roman Empire since 30 AD. It was a major supplier of grain and the most prosperous province outside Italy. Alexandria was the second largest city after Rome. The region of Nubia south of Egypt was an early cradle of civilization that produced several complex societies, engaged in trade and industry.

Long overshadowed by its more prominent Egyptian neighbor, it is now become clear that the ancient kingdom of Kush was an advanced civilization in its own right. The Kushites had their own language and writing, and flourishing urban societies emerged. Especially remarkable is the unusually high participation of women in these communities.

See you! In the next decade.

Once Upon a Decade 40-50 AD

The Tao of Caligula

A young emperor, brutally murdered. What went wrong with Gaius Julius Caesar, better known as Caligula? It’s quite a story. We’re then heading east to meet the Parthians and through the Kushan Empire to China, where the Han dynasty has been restored. Time for a closer look at the Tao.

In 19 AD, Rome is shaken by the death of Germanicus. Not only had Emperor Tiberius adopted him as his son and supposed successor, he was also a very successful and popular general. Gaius, who was Germanicus youngest son and had just turned 7 when his father died, used to go with his parents on their military campaigns. It was there that Gaius got the cute but infamous nickname Caligula, which means “little boots” in Latin.

Germanicus was a grandson of Mark Antony, who was once a political ally of Julius Caesar. Mark Anthony is also remembered for his marriage with Cleopatra, who had been Julius Caesar’s mistress. But before that, in 40 BC, Mark Antony married Octavia Thurina who was a half-sister of Augustus, the divine emperor.

This political marriage did not last very long but it did produce two daughters. The youngest daughter, the beautiful Antonia, married general Drusus the Elder in 16 BC. Drusus the Elder was Tiberius’ brother; their mother was none other than Empress Livia. But Augustus was not their biological father as the marriage of Livia and Augustus remained childless, and Livia’s sons were from a previous marriage.

We return to the union of Antonia and Drusus, which produces three children: Germanicus, Livilla and Claudius. But the latter sufferes from poor health and isn’t taken very seriously. Then in 9 BC, when Germanicus was just 6 years old, disaster struck as his father died after he fell from his horse.

Once an adult, Germanicus was adopted by his uncle Tiberius in 4 AD. Tiberius, in turn, was then adopted by emperor Augustus. Himself an adoptee of Julius Caesar, Augustus had arranged this, so that Germanicus would at least become second in line of succession.

Because after Augustus had lost two grandsons, he may well have seen Germanicus as his successor. But Empress Livia seemed to prefer her son Tiberius over her grandson Germanicus. Thus, it’s Tiberius who becomes the new emperor in 14 AD.

But Germanicus’ star is rising. Then, in 19 AD, Germanicus is sent on a campaign in Syria. There he apparently gets poisoned and dies at the age of 34. When the ashes of Germanicus arrive in Rome, all the people are grieving. Except emperor Tiberius and his mother Livia who are conspicuously absent.

Germanicus was married to Agrippina, a granddaughter of princeps Augustus. She used to join Germanicus on his military campaigns, but now she’s stuck in Rome with their six children. Not afraid to stand up for them, she claims that her husband was murdered so that Tiberius’ own son, Drusus the Younger, would become heir to the throne.

All this brings Agrippina in conflict with Tiberius’ close confidant Sejanus, the all-powerful leader of the Praetorian Guard. Sejanus acts as if he is protecting Tiberius interests, but in secret he is plotting to become the emperor himself.

To this end, he manages to seduce Livilla, wife of Drusus Junior and sister of Germanicus and Claudius. Sejanus gets her to slowly poison her husband and in 23 AD, Drusus Junior dies a seemingly natural death. The grievin Tiberius has lost his only biological child.

In 25 AD, Sejanus wants to marry Livilla, in order to join the Julio-Claudian dynasty himself. But Tiberius refuses his permission. Then Sejanus starts going after the supporters of Agrippina and her family with accusations of treason and sexual misconduct.

It escalates rapidly after Livia’s death In 29 AD. Tiberius forces the Senate to send Agrippina and her eldest son into exile where he dies in 31 AD. In thatsame year, Sejanus is himself executed and replaced by Macro. Yet no mercy is shown to both Agrippina and her second son Drusus who die of starvation in 33 AD.

Caligula is now the only son of Agripina and Germanicus still alive. This very notion must have been horrifying, but with him, Tiberius has other plans. When Caligula turns 18, he orders his nephew to join him on the island of Capri where he and his imperial court have retreated since 26 AD.

Tiberius grandson Gemellus is also told to stay on Capri. Thus, in 31 AD, Tiberius has two rival candidates for his succession safely close to him. Caligula has no other choice than to study hard and please Tiberius. His talent for acting and public speaking serves him well in this respect.

But the importance of a good relationship with Macro, now head of the Praetorian Guard, is also very clear to him. In 37 AD, Tiberius dies at the age of 77 and Caligula returns to Rome to become the new emperor. Shortly thereafter, Gemellus is executed.

The prudent Tiberius left the Empire as a whole, with its coffers well filled. But in Rome he was very unpopular. Thus, Caligula is welcomed with great enthusiasm and at first, the young emperor does his best to fulfill his promise.

One of his first acts is to return the ashes of his mother Agrippina and his brother Nero to Rome. In this way, he highlights his imperial lineage. He also gains a lot of popularity by organizing big festivals and theater shows and investing heavily in major infrastructure projects.

He even tries to maintain a good relationship with the Senate. Nevertheless, the upper classes distrustes his fondness for artists, slaves and foreign kings. Perhaps Caligula identified with such people, seeing himself as a victim too of a ruthless power structure that had robbed him of so many of his dear family members.

Unlike Tiberius before him, Caligula happily accepts whatever divine honor the Senate wants to grant him. With his peculiar sense of humor, he would even top that off by dressing up as a god, such as Mercury or Jupiter.

In Rome, the young emperor Caligula may finally have found his freedom, but he still doesn’t feel safe at all. Especially after he unexpectedly recovers from a serious illness. Even Macro, his important ally with the Praetorian Guard, loses his confidence and is forced to commit suicide in 38 AD.

The young emperor doesn’t trust anyone except his own family members, especially his 3 sisters. As well as his uncle Claudius, who is considered to be harmless. His relationship with Drusilla is especially close. Unfortunately, she dies in 38 AD.

The other two sisters are sent into exile a year later on suspicion of treason. Allegations that Caligula maintained sexual relations with his sisters arose only decades later, and should be regarded as political propaganda more than anything else. After all, accusations of insanity and sexual perversity have always been commonplace in politics.

Which is not to say that Caligula didn’t abuse his absolute power in many ways. And now, things are going more and more in the wrong direction. As his relationship with the Senate gets worse, Caligula famously declares that even his horse would make a better senator.

Some of his opponents come off with suicide. In that way they can at least keep their wealth for their families. But if a death sentence is imposed after a trial, the state inherits those assets. In other words, they belong to the emperor.

There are of course several other ways too, to humiliate members of the wealthy class and strip them of their wealth. But at a certain point they get fed up and in 41 AD, Caligula is murdered by two tribunes of the Praetorian Guard.

His wife Milonia Caesonia and their little daughter Julia are also assassinated, upon which the Senate declares its desire to restore the Republic. But the members of the Praetorian Guard who remain loyal to the emperor disagree.

They see this as a threat to their own position and on the same day, they appoint Uncle Claudius as the new emperor. If the stories are to be believed, Claudius was found hiding behind a curtain to escape the bloody assault

The Romans were constantly at war with Celtic and Germanic tribes. But the Parthian Empire to the East was able to force the Romans into a more diplomatic relationship. In 53 BC the Parthians had already defeated a Roman invasion force. And in 36 AD, it was Mark Antony’s turn to suffer a painful defeat.

The Parthians were of Scythian origin but they fully embraced Greek language and culture. Its favorable location connecting West and East brought the Parthian Empire trade and prosperity. Not just goods were distributed along these routes, but all kinds of ideas and religions as well.

The same was true of the emerging Kushan Empire even further east. This Empire was founded by the Yuezhi, a nomadic people of Indo-European origin. Originally, they inhabited an area near China where they maintained very good relations with the Han.

Perhaps for this reason, the Yuezhi were driven out by the Xiungshu. United under their king Kujula, they managed to establish a powerful empire further west. Together with the Parthians they played an important role in enabling the Silk Road to be a link between west and east.

Trade with China must have been a lot less during Wang Mang’s reign but in 25 AD, the Han dynasty was restored after Liu Xiu became Emperor Guangwu of Han, as we saw in a previous episode. We also talked about Confucianism as one of the three teachings that have shaped Chinese culture over the centuries. The other two are Buddhism and Taoism.

To get some idea of what Taoism is about, we end with a few quotes from its most important text, the Tao Te Ching:

The Tao is the mother of all things in the Universe. The Tao gives birth to One. One gives birth to two. Two gives birth to three. And three gives birth to all things.

They come in from the dark and embrace the lights as the Moon goes down and the Sun goes up. Balanced by the flow of infinite emptiness like Yin and Yang.

In this world we all know beautiful things, and that’s why there is ugliness too.

We know good from bad because there is bad.

Therefore, something and nothing come from each other.

Difficult and easy accomplish each other. Long and short define each other. High and low arise from each other. Notes and tones harmonize with each other. Before and after follow each other.

The way of the Tao is acting without doing, working without striving, tasting without sensing.

To consider the small as large, the few as many and to confront the unkind with kindness.

When a government seems lacking, people are simple and sincere. When a government interferes with everything, it all goes wrong.

Dao De Jing

Once Upon a Decade 50-60 AD

From the Pacific to Claudius’ Rome

“When a government seems lacking, people are simple and sincere. When a government interferes with everything, it all goes wrong.” To explore the merits of this Taoist quote, we visit China, Vietnam and Emperor Claudius Rome. We finally have time to visit the Pacific nations. And we meet St. Paul, the co-founder of Christianity.

In 23 AD, General Liu Xiu defeated Wang Mang’s armies in the battle of Kunyang, bringing an end to the shortlived Xin dynasty, as we saw in the previous episodes. Liu Xiu was a distant descendant of the great Emperor Wu. After he was able to forge several alliances and achieve military successes north of the Yellow River, he claimed the title of Emperor with the name Guangwu of Han. Thus, in 25 AD, the Han dynasty was restored.

But there were still a number of local rulers he had to deal with. So it wasn’t until 42 AD that Emperor Guangwu had reunified the entire empire under his control. Except for the lost territories in the far West, which would not be recaptured from the Xiongnu until the 70’s of the first century.

The capital Chang’an laid in ruins, and was moved to Luoyang. Hence the name Eastern Han dynasty. The name “Luoyang” comes from the ancient city’s location on the northern side of the Luo River, which is the sunny, or yang side.

Many Han cities grew large. The Western Han capital Chang’an was already home to 250,000 people; the new capital, Luoyang, had twice as many. Most ordinary citizens lived in large urban and suburban areas outside the city walls.

Data that were generated for the purpose of taxation indicate that this urbanization continued. At the beginning of the first century, the 60 million or so inhabitants of Han China, nearly a third of the world’s population at the time, were spread over more than 12 million households. This amounts to about 5 persons per household. By the middle of the second century, this was down to 3 or 4 per family.

Emperor Guangwu had already been an artful strategist when he was still a general. He was known for being both cautious and merciful. As the emperor, he preferred to seek diplomatic solutions rather than military confrontation. As long as the empire had not regained its former strength, he may well have considered reunification more important than new conquests.

Especially in rural areas, the population had suffered a lot from the wars and natural disasters of the past era. This, ironically, may have helped to bring about at least some modest land reforms. Rural irrigation works were also restored.

The tax burden was lowered as well, and the currency stabilized. Trade flourished once again and wealth started to accumulate. For the time being, the Han dynasty had acquired itself a new “Mandate of Heaven.”

Guangwu of Han was said to have rather stayed on his farm, then to become the emperor. He does indeed come across as one of the very few rulers who are able to put the interests of country and people above their own. Such a politician would qualify for the title of statesman, but it’s very hard to say with any certainty, whether that is the case here.

He did manage to keep his generals happy without giving them too much power. Apparently, he would also rather listen to the advice of scientists than the malicious scheming of the eunuchs and widows at the imperial court.

Even before he became emperor Guangwu, Liu Xiu had already married his true love, Yin Lihua. In 24 AD though, not long after that, he entered into a second marriage with Guo Shengtong, mainly for political reasons. She was the first to give the emperor a son, who was therefore destined to become the crown prince, at least initially.

But by 41 AD, Empress Guo Shengtong had fallen into disgrace and had to give up her title to Yin Lihua. Finally, Yin was officially the empress Guangly. Thus her eldest son, Liu Zhuang, became the new crown prince. And in 57 AD, the year Emperor Guangwu died at the age of 62, it was he who assumed supreme power, under the title of Emperor Ming of Han.

In 40 AD, a revolt against Han rule broke out in North Vietnam. This rebellion was led by Trưng Trắc and her sister Trưng Nhị. The Trưng sisters were daughters of a wealthy aristocratic family of Lac ethnicity. These peoples had inhabited the Red River Delta for ages. But more and more, they felt threatened by increased Chinese immigration and cultural oppression.

It took until 43 AD before Emperor Guangwu finally intervened, by sending General Ma Yuan south to crush the rebellion. To this day, the rebellious sisters are remembered as true heroes of Vietnamese history.

North Korean Lelang had also revolted against the Han empire, but was brought back under its control as early as 30 AD. On the Korean peninsula, the period of the 3 kingdoms has been underway since 57 BC. These kingdoms were Baekje, Silla and Goguryeo. From the latter comes the name Korea, but culturally, all three must have had much in common. Nevertheless, linguists believe that the so-called Peninsular Japonic languages that were initially spoken in Korea were displaced by Korean languages and became extinct.

But on the Japanese islands, these languages lived on, brought there over the previous centuries by the Yayoi people. This Yayoi period would last until 300 AD. During that era, their culture blended in with the ancient, indigenous Jōmon culture.

The Yayoi people introduced wet rice farming and all kinds of innovations in textiles and iron, bronze and woodworking. The Japanese population grew rapidly and distinct social classes formed.

The Yayoi tribes gradually grew into a number of kingdoms. The “Book of the Later Han” tells us that in 57 AD, Emperor Guangwu of Han granted a golden imperial seal to the king of Nakoku, a state located on the Japanese island of Kyūshū. In return, Nakoku envoys in the Chinese capital offered tributes and formal New Year wishes. This king of Na gold seal was recovered more than 1,500 years later by a farmer on the island of Shikanoshima.

Between 3000 and 1000 BC, speakers of Austronesian languages began to spread from Taiwan into Southeast Asia. Further south, we find an enormous variety of Papuan languages. And in Australia, too, there is an endless mix of languages and cultures.

It is believed that the ancestors of the Australian aboriginals arrived from Africa and Asia as early as 65,000 years ago. Back then, sea levels were tens of meters lower than today.

Some of the stories told by those peoples go that far back in time. Often called myths, they turn out to be surprisingly accurate. For instance, traces of volcanic eruptions dating back 10,000 years have been found, as well as long-vanished landscapes and large animals that are told about in these tales.

Those oral traditions are as diverse as the peoples themselves. What they do share is a strong connection to nature and the land, as opposed to the individual and his ego.

The creation stories vary as well but they have in common a dark nothingness from which everything in nature has been dreamed up. In the Dreamings of various peoples of South east Australia, Baiame is the creator. There, in nowadays Victoria, we meet Bunjil too. Elsewhere, we might find the Rainbow Serpent.

But is there a creation story anywhere that does not somehow involve a serpent or a dragon? Well, perhaps in Rome, which, after all, was founded by the twin brothers Romulus and Remus.

In the previous episode, we talked a lot about the deadly power struggles within the Julio-Claudian dynasty. With the help of his disabilities, Tiberius Claudius Caesar had managed to stay out of trouble. Thus it could happen that Claudius was proclaimed emperor by the Praetorian Guard in 41 AD, on the same day that his cousin Caligula was assassinated.

Claudius struggled with tics and speech problems, maybe he suffered from cerebral palsy, or perhaps Tourette’s syndrome. Later in life, however, his condition improved. He himself said he had exaggerated the symptoms for his own safety.

Regardless, his family felt embarrassed with him. Claudius grandmother Livia and her husband Emperor Augustus would rather not be seen with the young Claudius in public. This left him every opportunity to study.

He devoted himself to writing several historical works, none of which have survived. Which is very unfortunate, but it did earn him a little more respect from his relatives, notably the divine emperor Augustus. But at the same time, his writings brought new disputes. Especially when his views of recent Roman history, conflicted with the narratives that the imperial family would consider to be the appropriate versions.

Only when Caligula became emperor in 37 AD and appointed Claudius as his co-consul did he become more involved in politics. Whether Claudius knew about the plot to assassinate Caligula is unknown. Apparently, Caligula did indeed treat him rather poorly, and after his death, the first thing Claudius did was to reward the Praetorian Guard richly.

In doing so, he bought loyalty, but he also set a dangerous precedent. Until then, such appointments would have been made by the Senate. So now the balance of power had shifted even further from the senate to the imperial palace.

In other ways, too, his policies did not always sit well with the senatorial class. He favored the equestrian class, and prompted fierce debates when, himself born in present-day Lyon, he advocated the appointment of Celts as senators.

Claudius considered his freed slaves to be much more trustworthy and loyal than his fellow politicians. These freedmen were given more and more official positions, which created a powerful bureaucracy in service of the emperor.

Nevertheless, the amateur historian Claudius is regarded as an efficient and popular emperor. He certainly did have some military successes, the invasion of Britain being the most famous.

But he is also portrayed as a drinker and a gambler. Perhaps because he had more luck at the gambling table than he had in the love game. Especially his 4th marriage to his niece Agripina Junior raised a lot of eyebrows. Eventually she became his downfall as she wanted her son Nero on the throne, instead of Claudius own son Brittanicus. Which is indeed what happened in 54 AD, when Claudius died at the age of 64.

During this period, Saint Paul was busy writing his letters from his residence in Corinth. Of the Pauline epistles that we know from the New Testament, 7 are considered to have actually been written by him self.

Paul was born Saul of Tarsus, Roman citizen of Jewish descent. Tarsus was a prosperous city with a famous university, teaching Greek philosophy. Although he was born in 5 AD, Paul had never met Jesus of Nazareth in person. He was, in fact, said to have little regard for the Nazarenes, as the followers of Jesus were called.

But then, as the story goes, he “saw the light,” and would go on to become Christ’s most influential apostle. With his companions he traveled throughout the Roman Empire to spread the message of Jesus as the Son of Man and savior from all sin.

They aimed their efforts especially at the gentiles, the non-jews that is, and founded several Christian communities. Because of this, Paul could be seen as the de-facto founder of the Catholic Church.

After the great fire in 64 AD, Nero began persecuting the early Christians in Rome, blaming them for the disaster. The apostles Paul and Peter are both believed to be among the victims.

To get some idea of his message, we end with a few quotes from the letter that Paul wrote to his fellow Christians in Rome, only 7 years earlier:

Although they claimed to be wise, they became fools and exchanged the glory of the immortal God for images made to look like a mortal human being and birds, animals and reptiles.

I am not ashamed of the gospel, because it is the power of God that brings salvation to everyone who believes, first to the Jew, then to the gentile. There will be trouble and distress on everyone who does evil, first on the Jew, then on the gentile. But glory, honor and peace for everyone who does good, first for the Jew, then for the gentile. For there is no difference between Jew and gentile, the same Lord is Lord of all, and richly blesses all who call on him.

Don’t you know what the scripture says about Elijah, how he appealed to God against Israel? “Lord, they have killed your prophets, and torn down your altars. I am the only one left and they’re trying to kill me.” And what was God’s answer to him? “I have reserved for myself seven thousand, who have not bowed the knee to Baäl.”

See you, in the next decade!

Once Upon a Decade 60-70 AD

Worshipping Nero, Mithras and the Buddha

The Apostle Paul wrote that “Whenever you judge the other, it is yourself you are condemning. For you who judge, practice the same things.” Let’s see how that plays out in Nero’s Rome. After a dinner with the worshippers of Mithras, we want to learn more about Armenia. And we travel to China, where Buddhism is finding its own path.

In 54 AD, Emperor Claudius died at the age of 60. Perhaps due to his lifestyle, but it was rumored that Claudius, who was known for his love of mushrooms, had been poisoned by his wife, Empress Agrippina. After all, she had been working for years to promote her own son Nero. The new head of the praetorian guard, for instance, was one of her allies.

Agrippina had married Emperor Claudius in 49 AD, despite the fact that he was her uncle, the brother of her father Germanicus. Claudius already had 2 children from a previous marriage, and Agrippina had a son from a previous marriage as well, named Nero. It took Agrippina two years, to convince Claudius to adopt him. This gave Rome a new potential heir to the throne. Nero’s stepbrother Brittannicus remained very much in the picture though, no doubt to Agrippina’s chagrin.

But another 3 years later her wishes were granted, and 16-year-old Nero became the new emperor. Women were not allowed to hold official office, but it was no secret that Agrippina was the one in control.

She eliminated several political rivals including Narcissus, who had been one of Claudius most loyal freedmen. As well as Domitia Lepida, who was Nero’s aunt and had raised him during his mother’s exile.

Apart from that, the first years of Nero’s reign were fairly successful, as he was kept in line not just by his mother, but also by his tutor Seneca, together with the Praetorian prefect, a man named Afranius Burrus. The provinces were at peace, and the authority and privileges of the Senate were restored to some extent, while the powers of tax collectors were restricted.

Before long, however, Nero’s relationship with his mother came under pressure. Pallas for instance, was a freedman of Greek descent and a favorite of Agrippina. But Nero removed him from his post as secretary of the treasury. Agrippina was also not very happy with Nero’s passion for Acte Claudia, one of Claudius’ freed slaves.

She may even have involved Nero’s wife Octavia, daughter of Claudius and Messalina. Agrippina had arranged for Nero to marry Octavia in 53 AD, when she was only 13 year old and Nero himself just 16.

It was also rumored that Agrippina was scheming to support Britannicus. What is known for certain is that Brittanicus died in 55 AD, only 14 years old. A year later, Agrippina was banished to her own villa.

The power struggle was finally settled in 59 AD, when Nero had Agrippina assassinated. It was supposed to look like a shipping accident but as so often, Nero’s plan failed. Now everyone knew that he had his mother, the divine Agrippina Augusta, murdered.

Then, in 62 AD, Nero finally dissolved his marriage with Octavia. Despite popular protests, Octavia was exiled to the island of Pandateria on charges of adultery, where she was eventually asassinated.

The same year, Nero married Poppaea Sabina. When she suddenly died in 65 AD, it was Nero who became deeply distressed. A year later, after Nero remarried Statilia Messalina, he also married a 13-year-old boy named Sporus. This was a castrated slave child, who was said to closely resemble Poppaea.

In 60 AD, a revolt broke out in Britannia. This rebellion was led by Boudica, the queen of the Celtic tribe of the Iceni. Agreements had not been honored, and instead her daughters had been abused by the Romans.

By then, Londinium was already a lively center for trade and commerce. But Roman governor Suetonius was unable to defend the city against the onslaught and withdrew his forces. The city was then completely destroyed.

Emperor Nero was ready to withdraw all his troops from Britain. But the battle that came next took place on terrain more favorable to the Romans. Even though the Celts were many more in number, they stood no chance against the well-armed and disciplined Romans. Still, Boudica has become immortal as a true British heroine.

The biggest crisis of Nero’s reign came in 64 AD with the great fire of Rome. Nero was in Pompeii at the time, but rushed to Rome to lead the battle against the fire. The inferno raged for a total of 10 days and destroyed most of the city.

Yet the image of Nero playing the violin while Rome burned, has become a metaphor for all failed rulers since. But although Nero was known to be an artist, he never played the violin.

Despite such a wide gap between narrative and reality, it remains information. At a minimum, it tells us something about people’s opinions. As Saint Paul was preaching: “Your judgment says as much about you as about the one you are judging.” All this chatter could also reflect the acceleration in the spread of information, that seems to define this era.

Nero undertook the rebuilding of the city on a grand scale. The Domus Aureus that he built for himself was beyond all measure. This may have given rise to the narrative, that Nero had lit the fire himself, even if it was a fatal accident.

The heavy taxes Nero imposed on Rome and the provinces for reconstruction, probably contributed to this negative image. Moreover, he started debasing the currency, by reducing its silver content from 100% to 90%.

According to Roman historian Tacitus, Nero resorted to a conspiracy theory of his own, and put the blame for the disastrous fire on the early Christians. After all, they do not accept the divinity of the Imperial Family, but have their own Son of God, albeit of more humble descent. They also reject Baäl and declare the Torah, or Jewish law, to be the supreme authority. To restore his own authority, Nero launched a brutal persecution, although limited to the community of Christians in Rome itself.

Besides his duties as emperor, Nero liked to perform as a popular artist who drew much applause. His cousin Caligula had a great love of music and theater as well, but he did not give performances for the public. That was unheard of, for a member of the upper class.

Nero was a big fan of Greek epics and in 67 AD, he toured Greece for more than a year. Meanwhile, unrest broke out in the provinces. Yet he didn’t visit any military camps, perhaps because competing in the Olympic Games demanded all his attention.

In 65 AD, growing discontent among the elite had already led to a failed assasination plot. Seneca, who had fallen out of favor with Nero anyway, was among the accused and committed suicide.

Finally the Senate, in concert with the Praetorian Guard, declared Nero a public enemy. His death in 68 AD, is also the end of the Julio Claudian dynasty.

After his death, a myth emerged that Nero would return as “Nero Redivivus.” To gain popular support, rebellious leaders repeatedly posed as a resurrected Nero. The infamous mark of the beast from Revelations, is sometimes seen as a reference to Nero.

During the first century, a somewhat mysterious cult named Mithraism became widespread. In many places, so-called Mithrae have been found. These are spaces where its members gathered for a communal meal. Those members could have a variety of backgrounds, but the existing hierarchy of Roman society was largely kept intact through a system that involved seven grades of initiation.

Mithras himself is based on the ancient Zoroastrian god Mithra. although the Roman version is quite different, depicting Mithras as slayer of a bull. Judging from the symbolism found in the Mithrae, astrology must have played an important role as well. Unfortunately, no texts have survived.

Under pressure from Christianity, Mithraism disappeared during the 4th century. Much of it has been preserved though. December 25, for instance, is also the birthday of Mithras. In both Christianity and Mithraïsm, gatherings and a communal meal play an important role.

Similar to the Greek god Apollo, Mithra was a sun god, and Sunday is his holy day. The 12 constellations of the zodiac have sometimes been linked to the 12 apostles.

Following the trail of Mithraism, we find ourselves in the Kingdom of Armenia, at a mountainous crossroads of East and West. Armenia had been part of the Persian Empire, until Alexander the Great defeated the Persians in the 4^th century BC. From then on, Armenia was able to gain a more independent status, and expand.

But control over the trade routes to the east was important to the Romans, and once the 1st century arrived, Armenia was effectively part of the Roman Empire. Yet the influence of the Parthians remained strong, and in 58 AD, young Emperor Nero felt it would be a good idea to start a war against the Parthian Empire.

After initial successes, the Romans suffered defeat in the Battle of Rhandeia, at the end of 62 AD. The following year a diplomatic compromise was reached. Given its geographic location in between major empires, this back and forth has been a recurring pattern for Armenia to this day. At the same time, these exchanges fueled the development of a very rich cultural and religious tradition.

In China, Emperor Ming of Han has ushered in the golden period of the Eastern Han Dynasty. His father, Emperor Guangwu of Han, had restored the Han dynasty in 26 AD. Ming was not his fathers first son though. That honor fell to Liu Qiang, but the marriage of his mother Guo Shengtong with emperor Guangwu had more to do with politics.

Guangwu’s first and only true love remained Yin Lihua, who was able to officially take over the position of empress from Guo Shengtong in 41 AD. Liu Yang was their first son and in 57 AD, it was he who became the new emperor under his new name, Ming of Han.

In addition to internal struggles with his generals and princes, Emperor Ming had to deal with the Xiongnu as well. But in 65 AD, peace returned to this front. As a result, children of Xiongnu nobles could attend a Confucian school in the capital Luoyang. This institute was built in 66 AD by emperor Ming, and would grow into China’s first imperial university.

Emperor Ming of Han is generally regarded as a capable and principled, but also very harsh ruler. He does earn some credit for treating his half-brothers and other family members fairly. And when he died in 75 AD, his will stipulated that no temple should be built for him. Instead, he wanted to be honored along with his mother Yin Lihua, the Empress Dowager Guanglie. This example was followed by later emperors, which resulted in considerable savings in temple construction.

By way of the Silk Road, Buddhism had already arrived in China at least a century earlier. A certain affinity with Taoism is apparent. But less so with Confucianism, the official state philosophy of the Han empire. Nevertheless in 68 AD, the White Horse temple was built in Luoyang. According to tradition, this is the first Buddhist temple in China.

The Pali Canon is the oldest collection of texts, containing the teachings of the Buddha himself. It was compiled shortly after his death, sometime around 500 BC. A later addition is the Dhammapada, which means something like the “path of universal law.”

A few quotes to conclude this episode:

Like a merchant with a small caravan but a lot of wealth avoids a dangerous road, and a man who loves life avoids a poison, one should avoid evil deeds.

Let a man abandon anger, let him forsake pride, let him overcome all bondage. No sufferings befall the man who is not attached to name and form and who calls nothing his own.

Like an elephant in battle,enduring an arrow shot from a bow, I will endure false accusations. For the people have no principles.

Tamed mules, noble horses and elephants with large tusks are excellent, but he who tames himself, is better still. Because with these animals, no one reaches Nirvana, where a well disciplined man goes, by taming himself.

The elephant called Dhanapalaka, his temples running with sap and hard to control, doesn’t eat anything when bound, and longs for the elephant forest.

If a man is lazy and eats too much. If he’s sleepy and rolls himself about like a hog fed on fodder, that fool is born again and again

Before, this mind of mine went wandering as it liked, as it wanted, as it pleased. But I will now hold it in check, as the elephant driver holds in the furious elephant with his goad.

See you! In the next decade

Once Upon a Decade 70-80 AD

The Fall of the Temple

It truly is a time of great empires and big ideas, as we’re seeing the destruction of the temple in Jerusalem and the arrival of the gospels. But not before taking a look at Osiris and Isis in Egypt. And we start off with the Kushan Empire and the spread of Buddhism in Asia.

In the previous episodes we already met the Kushans. According to the “Book of the Later Han,” written in the 5th century, they were known in China as the Great Yuezhi. Over the centuries, the Kushans and Han Chinese maintained a profitable trading relationship with each other.

Once they established themselves as the rulers in their new home area at the center of the Silk Road, the Kushan were able to expand their trade relations with the areas to the West, as far as Rome. As the Book of the Later Han puts it “The Yuezhi then became extremely rich”.

It’s no wonder then, that the Kushans took great interest in the various local beliefs and customs they met. Initially, they adopted the Greek language. But after the first century, Greek vanished from official use to be replaced with Bactrian, while still using Greek script for writing. Bactrian is also known as Kushan or Aryan and is an old and forgotten Indo-European language.

Elements of Zoroastrianism from ancient Iran are present, as well as from Hinduism, notably in the form of Shiva worship. Moreover, the Kushans played an important role in the spread of Buddhism to Central Asia and China.

There’s no indication as to what Buddha might have looked like, as the familiar image of the Buddha was not developed until this period. Ghandhara and Mathura were the main centers of this artistic style, known as Greco-Buddhist, because of its apparent Greek influence.

This influence went both ways. The Greek philosopher Pyrrho and his teacher Anaxarchus accompanied Alexander the Great on his campaign to the east. Along their journey they met with Indian religious men, described as Gymnosophists, or naked philosophers.

Very few of the sayings of the ancient Pyrrho have been preserved. But apparently they inspired a first-century school of sceptic philosophy, known as Pyrrhonism. Its extreme skepticism rejects any judgment regarding truths, dogmas or beliefs.

In the mid-2nd century, under the influence of Kushan emperor Kanishka, Mahayana Buddhism became recognized as an official Buddhist school. Vajrayana, also known as Tibetan Buddhism, is a later branch of this tree. Theravada Buddhism on the other hand represents earlier Buddhism going back to the 4th century BC.

Mahayana temples commonly feature statues and images of various bodhisattvas. These are deities in the service of the Buddha, striving to become one themselves. A path that could essentially be open to anyone.

The Mahayana Sutras is a collection of Buddhist scriptures, that first began to appear in the first centuries before and after Christ. A large part of those texts are known to us only through translations from Sanskrit to Chinese. One of the first translators, working in the Chinese capital Luoyang around 180 AD, was a Kushan monk from Gandhara by the name of Lokaksema.

The Lion’s Roar of Queen Śrīmālā is a later, 3rd century sutra translated into Chinese in 436 AD. Here we read:

“O Lord, at the time of creation, the three thousand worlds and the forty billion kinds of continents emerged from the great waters. Similarly, the innumerable worlds of the Mahayana, the supernatural powers of all the bodhisattvas, the peace and happiness of all worlds

all these emerge from acceptance of the True Dharma”

In the Buddhist context, Dharma refers to the teachings of the Bhuddha, which is a bit different from what the concept originally meant in Hinduism. “The Diamond That Cuts through Illusion” is another Sutra that was translated into Chinese in 401 AD. In these verses, Buddha is teaching his mindful disciple Subhuti:

“If someone says the Buddha has spoken spiritual truths, he slanders the Buddha due to his inability

to understand what the Buddha teaches.

Subhuti, as to speaking truth, no truth can be spoken.

Therefore it is called ‘speaking truth’.”

The use of such paradoxes as a means of understanding the unknowable is even more prominent in the Ch’an school, better known as Zen Buddhism. This tradition seems to have evolved from the merging of Buddhism with Taoism. It places a strong focus on meditation, which in its various forms, is of course an important part of Buddhism in general.

At the core of the various schools we can still find the doctrine of early Buddhism. It teaches the 4 noble truths: life is suffering, this suffering is caused by attachment, salvation from this suffering is Nirvana, and the way to it is the eightfold right path.

Theravada, or “The Way of the Elders,” is the only early Buddhist tradition that is still active today and is found mostly in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. The Mahayana sutras and various bodhisattvas, are mostly not recognized by this school. Except perhaps for Maitreya, the bodhisattva to be reborn as the new Buddha.

The Pali canon is the collection of scriptures that is being studied by the school of Theravada Buddhism. The previous episode ended with a few quotes from these ancient teachings. They were written down in the first century BC in Pali, which is an old, Southeast Asian language. But they had already been passed on orally from teacher to student, for about 400 years before that.

Cleopatra was a pharaoh of Macedonian origin, member of the Ptolemaic dynasty, that ruled Egypt after the conquests of Alexander the Great. It was the last dynasty, as Egypt became a province of Rome after Cleopatra ended her life in 30 BC.

To Egypt, the emperor in Rome was no less divine than a Pharaoh, the intermediate between the people and the gods. But to the emperor himself, Egypt was equally important. Unlike most other provinces, the governor of Egypt was of eqeustrian class instead of senatorial and was therefore directly answerable to the emperor.

That’s because Egypt had quickly become Rome’s most prosperous province. Trade with the East through Egypt grew rapidly and generated large tax revenues. But Egypt was also of vital importance for the supply of grain. This made Egypt essential to the practice known as bread and circuses, which had devolved into a means of gaining political power, through the provision of free grain and costly circus games to Roman citizens.

Alexandria was the largest port of the Roman Empire and the second largest city after Rome. Like Roman citizens, Alexandrians enjoyed a special status and privileges such as a lower tax burden. The city was founded in 332 BC by Alexander the Great as his own, new capital of Egypt.

It remained Egypt’s most important Greek city and was considered the capital of knowledge and learning. The famous Great Library of Alexandria contained perhaps hundreds of thousands of papyrus scrolls.

Alexandria had a population of about 500 to 600,000, of which Jews formed an important population group. Jewish scholars set out to translate their Tanakh, from Hebrew into Greek, which was the most important language in Alexandria at the time.

Over the course of several centuries a number of Jewish writings were added and thus the Septuagint was created. These are the texts that the earliest, first century Christians had access to. Even today the Septuagint corresponds to the Old Testament of the Roman Catholic Bible.

In 1799, soldiers of Napoleon’s army discovered a stele, which became known as the Rosetta Stone. It’s inscribed with three versions of the same decree, issued in 196 BC by a congress of priests at Memphis to honor the pharaoh. The lower text is in Greek, the middle text in Egyptian and the upper text is written in ancient hieroglyphic script. This made it possible to decipher those hieroglyphics and learn more about Egyptian mythology.

Every day Ra sails his boat along the sky. But at night, the demonic serpent Apophis must be defeated in order to overcome chaos. Here, in the underworld, Ra meets with Osiris who is judging the souls of the dead.

When the deceased arrive at the Hall of the Two Truths, after a difficult journey, their hearts are placed on the scales for a final assessment. Anubis is keeping guard while Thoth, the divine scribe, notes the outcome. Will it be the gateway to the afterlife? Or will his lonely soul wander eternally, because his heart became too heavy with sin?

In the first century, Greek historian Plutarch wrote about the worship of Isis and Osiris:

“One of the first acts related of Osiris in his reign was to deliver the Egyptians from their destitute and brutish manner of living. This he did by showing them the fruits of cultivation, by giving them laws, and by teaching them to honour the gods.”

After Osiris was killed by his jealous brother, Isis uses her divine powers to revive him once more, so that she could still become pregnant with Osiris. Their son Horus then starts a battle with Set, sometimes interpreted as the struggle between North- and South Egypt.

In Egypt’s rich history of thousands of years, its myths were bound to constant adaptation. Nevertheless, as a symbol of the might of the Pharaoh, Horus seems to have been a constant factor. To this day, his all-seeing eye is everywhere.

From the 2nd century BC, Isis worship began to spread throughout the Mediterranean. Caligula built a temple to her in Rome, and it is often said that Isis was a model for the worship of the Virgin Mary.

In Greece, Isis was equated with Demeter, the goddess of harvest and grain. Near Athens, extensive initiations into the cult of Demeter and Persephone, known as the Eleusinian Mysteries, were held every year. A sacred brew with hallucinogenic properties that may have contained the ergot fungus, played an important role, as did music and dancing. The sistrum is a sacred percussion instrument that is still being used today by the Ethiopian Orthodox Church.

A story of chaos and resurrection can certainly be told about the Roman Empire. After the death of Emperor Nero in 68 AD, the Julio-Claudian dynasty had come to an end, and civil war broke out in the empire. A number of tribes took the opportunity to revolt, such as the Batavi in the Netherlands, from 69 to 70 AD.

In 69, the year of the 4 emperors, Galba, Otto and Vitellius succeeded each other. Then, after Vitellius was defeated by Vespasian’s army, a new dynasty was born, known as the Flavian dynasty.

Vespasians career had not always gone so smoothly though. In the days of Nero for instance, he had gotten into trouble, when he reportedly fell asleep at a performance that Nero gave in Greece. But he seems to have improved upon himselve, at least according to Roman historian Tacitus:

“While Vitellius had won golden opinions as an honest governor of Africa, Vespasian’s tenure of office there had earned him discredit and unpopularity. So the provincials argued that they would display the same qualities as emperors. But experience showed otherwise”

Vespasian initiated several construction projects, including the Colosseum in Rome, which was completed by his son Titus. In order to raise funds, anything was allowed, either corrupt or correct. But at least, things stabilized again.

Vespasian was from an equestrian family and came across as humble, and not above the common citizen or soldier. Combined with his sense of humor, this earned him some popularity. At the same time, he made clever use of propaganda in order to legitimize his unlimited power.

For instance, Roman historian Suetonius informs us that at the time when Vitellius was being ousted in Rome, Vespasian himself stayed in Alexandria to keep the supply of grain under control. In order to assert his divine claim as emperor and pharaoh according to Egyptian customs, Vespasian managed to make a blind man see by anointing his eyes with his spit. And yet another person was able to walk again.

In 78 AD, Emperor Vespasian died of natural causes, and was succeeded by his son Titus. Titus had already gained some prestige, not least with the suppression of the Great Jewish Revolt in Judea.

The province of Judea had been placed under direct Roman rule in 6 BC. In that same year, a census held for tax purposes, sparked an uprising led by Jewish rebel leader Judas of Galilee. A new crisis arose in 37 AD, when Emperor Caligula got the idea to erect a statue of himself, inside the Jewish Temple.

Eventually, discontent came to a head with the outbreak of the great Jewish Revolt in 66 AD. Despite Vespasian’s alleged disregard for Nero’s musical talents, the emperor ordered him to suppress the rebellion anyway. From 69 AD, when Vespasian returned to Rome to become the new emperor himself, his son Titus continued the campaign..

After a long siege and fierce opposition from the Jewish people, Titus conquered Jerusalem in 70 AD. Even the Jewish Temple went up in flames. This was the second temple of Jerusalem, built in 537 BC, after Persian Emperor Cyrus the Great had liberated the Israelites from Babylon. 50 Years before that, the first temple, better known as Solomon’s temple, had been destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar the Great, who led a large number of Judeans to Babylon in captivity.

It’s fair to say that the year 70 was a pivotal moment in history, and it’s around this time that the gospel of Mark appears. In this account, the catastrophic destruction of Herod’s temple is already mentioned. Later on, the gospel of Luke gives even more details, which are consistent with the historical record.

“But when you see Jerusalem surrounded by armies, then know that its desolation has come near. Then those who are in Judea, must flee to the mountains”

The Gospel of Mark is considered to be the oldest of the 4 gospels in the New Testament.

As it is written in the prophet Isaiah, “See, I am sending my messenger ahead of you, who will prepare your way, the voice of one crying out in the wilderness: Prepare the way of the Lord, make his paths straight”

The more elaborate gospels of Matthew, Luke and John have all borrowed from Mark to varying degrees. None of the books, however, list sources or even an author.

The gospels were originally written in Greek and would each fit on one papyrus scroll. It’s assumed that whoever wrote the Gospel of Mark, was a Christian who aimed at gentile converts, especially those living in Rome.

Mark depicts Jesus of Nazareth as a Jewish rabbi who travels the land. With the assistance of his disciples, he heals the sick and casts out demons. On several occasions, Jesus asks to keep his good deeds a secret. Nevertheless he attracts large crowds and before long he finds himself in conflict with the Jewish establishment.

Jewish historian Josephus explains the main Jewish religious orders of the time:

“Three forms of philosophy are pursued among the Judeans: the members of one are Pharisees, of another Sadducees, and the third, who certainly are reputed to cultivate seriousness, are called Essenes”

“Whereas these men shun the pleasures as vice, they consider self-control and not succumbing to the passions virtue”

The Sadducees were the high priests of the temple, and after the destruction of Herod’s temple, they became obsolete. Although by 73 AD, the others had vanished as well. According to Josephus, the Essenes believed in destiny and predestination, contrary to the Sadducees who emphasized free will. The Pharisees held a position in between, as he explains:

“When they determine that all things are done by fate, they do not take away the freedom from men of acting as they think fit”

“They also believe that souls have an immortal vigor in them, and that under the earth there will be rewards or punishments, according as they have lived virtuously or viciously in this life”

The Essenes seemed to keep themselves more or less separate from society. Unlike The Pharisees. who are usually regarded as representatives of the common Jews, versus the Hellenized upper class and high priests. In their approach to the Torah they included various oral traditions and their focus was on the synagogue as a center for their studies.

Strict enforcement of the religious rules seemed to be of paramount importance to all three schools. In the gospels, Jesus of Nazareth argues that good intentions and acting correctly are more important than the letter of the law. Yet he is denounced, even if all he did was heal someone on the Sabbath.

Jesus of Nazareth is also accused of sitting at the table with tax collectors and other sinners. But the most serious allegation is the capital offense of blasphemy. Jesus is blamed for forgiving sins and naming himself Son of God or even worse to the Romans: King of the Jews. According to the gospels, the Jewish people were so incited, that given the choice, they would rather let the notorious murderer Barabas go free, than an innocent preacher from Nazareth.

Indeed in the Gospel of John, Jesus has developed into no less than God himself. But this scripture was not written until around 90 AD, and is a bit different from the other gospels. In those first 3, Jezus is often referred to as the Son of Man. This reminds us a lot of the Book of Enoch, written several centuries before the days of Jesus of Nazareth.

This is the Son of Man who has righteousness, with whom dwells righteousness, and who reveals all the treasures of that whisch is hidden,because the Lord of the spirits has chosen him, and whose lot has the pre-eminence before the Lord of the spirits in uprightness for ever.

The Book of Enoch never made it into the official Bible canon, with the exception of the Ethiopian Bible. Nevertheless, it is still a very influential part of apocalyptic literature.

When St Paul wrote his letters to the early Christian communities around the Mediterranean, he used the name Christ Jesus or Jesus Christ. Christ is the Greek word for Messiah, the anointed one. Anointing a priest or king is a very ancient tradition.

Until the appearance of the Gospel of Mark, the letters that Paul wrote to his fellow Christians were the only writings about Christ, that we can read today. Although Paul didn’t deny his Jewish roots, he did call himself the apostle to the gentiles. Not only can Gentiles become Christians, he argues, they can do so without strictly following the many Jewish laws and rules.

Christ died for our sins, and to give eternal life through his resurrection, he writes. But Paul does not proclaim his Christ to be God. Nor does he inform us about the miracles Christ performed, or the mysteries surrounding his birth.

Unlike Paul’s epistles, the gospels are much more biographic, written in a current day style. Which is to say that in those days, reality and the magical worlds of spirits were not as strictly separated, as they might be in the modern mind.

The baptism of Jesus by John the Baptist is a recurring theme in all 4 gospels. Contrary to the repeated cleansing rituals of the Torah, John’s baptism involved a one-time immersion in the waters of the Jordan “in order to obtain forgiveness of sins.” John the Baptist’s ministry came to an end in 30 AD when he was beheaded on behalf of Herod Antipas, son of King Herod the Great.

A more metaphorical interpretation of the gospels, rather than a literal approach, will probably do them most justice. In the way Christ himself likes to use metaphores, for instance when he describes the “Kingdom of Heaven” as a mindset, rather than a place to go. One that focuses on long-term beneficial results, rather than the instant gratification of every lust or need, and the never-ending pursuit of money and power.

To love him with all your heart, with all your understanding, and with all your strength, and to love your neighbor as yourself is more important, than all burnt offerings and sacrifices.

See you! In the next decade

Once Upon a Decade 80-90 AD

The Magnificent Maya

In 79 AD, Mount Vesuvius erupted, burying Pompeii in a thick layer of ashes. Not a good omen for the decade ahead. But first we visit the Maya in Central America. Also in the Americas, we see the rise of the Moche, and the fall of Chirippa on the shores of Lake Titicaca.

Because of Centro-America’s unique geography, an enormous diversity of natural conditions can be found, in a relatively small area. There are mountain ranges and volcanoes, high plains and hot humid lowlands. As a result, the biodiversity in this region is among the highest in the world.

The greatest of the Mayan kingdoms remained hidden in the vast forests for many centuries. Currently, more than 400 ancient cities have been discovered, connected by an extensive network of roads. In sciences such as astronomy and mathematics, the Maya were highly advanced. They developed the concept of zero for instance, long before it was widely used.

For the Maya as an agricultural civilization, their calendars were of sacred importance. The Long Count is a calendar, formed by combining the two calendars that were in use, into a third calendar. This calendar has a starting point, going all the way back to 3314 BC!

The oldest known structure of the Maya, and also the largest, is known as Aquada Fénix and was built around 1000 to 800 BC. Some 60 miles to the east from there, one of the largest pyramids in the world can be found, at a place called El Mirador, or Viewpoint. This city is thought to have flourished from around 600 BC onward.

At the end of the first century, a number of cities among which El Mirador, seem to have been temporarily abandoned. What terrible fate struck these cities, is still an unsolved mystery. During this same period, Tikal grew into one of the largest Mayan cities, apparently benefiting from the situation.

Construction in Tikal on a large scale dates back to 400 BC, while agriculture took place as early as 1000 BC. The Maya themselves called the city Yax Mutal, Place of Whispers. A breathtaking place it certainly is.

The various Maya languages were spoken by several million people. Maya society was organized into different polities and nations, each producing and trading their own agriculture or artisanal products. Cocoa beans could be used as currency. To this day, each village has its own, typical fabrics.

The ruling families resided in the centers of the large cities, that were home to 10,000s of citizens. A strong middle class of priests, merchants and artists surrounded the king, or queen. They may well have been recognizable by their own way, of deforming their skulls.

Military strength must have been of great importance as well. A high status captive might sometimes be needed, for blood-letting rituals or perhaps human sacrifices. It’s hard to say how widespread these practices were, though, as so little knowledge has been preserved.

Shamanism is considered to be at the root of Mayan spirituality. In order to connect to another world, various brews and hallucinogens are available to the practitioner. In addition to having your own soul, one can als also have a Waya, an external soul that often appears as an animal such as a deer, a dog or a jaguar. This spirit creature plays a vital role. Natural phenomena, such as mountains and caves, are also connections to the Gods.

At the time, the Maya were the only ones in the Americas with a well-developed writing system. Unfortunately, just four codices have survived the onslaught of the Spanish. Only one more book was written afterwards, by anonymous members of the K’iche people, around 1555 AD. This is the Popol Vuh or “Book of the Mat,” where Mat refers to the council meeting.

It tells the history of the K’iche, starting with their own version of the Maya creation story:

First is Thunderbolt Hurricane, second is Youngest Thunderbolt and third is Sudden Thunderbolt. These three together are Heart of Sky. Then they came together with Sovereign and Quetzal Serpent. Together they conceived light and life. How shall it be sown? When shall there be a dawn for anyone who shall be a provider who shall be a sustainer?

Then the Earth was created by them. Merely their word brought about the creation of it. In order to create the Earth, they said Earth and immediately it was created. Just like a cloud, like a mist was the creation and formation of it.

Then the rivers and forests are created by Heart of the Sky, working with a couple that can manifest themselves as Sovereign and Quetzal Serpent, but also as the Framer and Shaper, or the Mother and father of Sons.

In order to properly honor and sustain the creation, they then proceed to create the animals. This plan fails, however, as the animals are not capable of speaking the right words. To solve this problem, the gods then decides to create humans.

At first these are made out of wood, and populate the world as speaking effigies. But those statues do not

satisfy the gods either, as they lack heart or mind. So they must be removed, to make way for the creation of real humans:

A flood was planned by Heart of Sky that came down upon the heads of the effigies carved of wood.

They were not capable of understanding, and did not speak before their Framer and their Shaper, their makers and their creators. Thus they were killed in the flood. There came a great resin down from the sky,

and there fell a black rain, a rain that fell both day and night. The small and the great animals came in upon them. Their faces were crushed by the trees and the stones.

In first century Meso-America, there were no large animals such as horses and cattle. Those had become extinct about 10,000 years earlier, most likely due to a comet impact. It’s very hard to say though, whether there is a connection here with Mayan mythology. After all, natural disasters such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, were all too familiar to the Maya as well.

In order for corn to grow and produce a nutricious cob, a seed must first be returned to Earth. This cycle of birth death and resurrection is a recurring theme in the Popol Vuh:

Now sacrifice yourselves. We would see this. Truly it is the desire of our hearts that you dance, said again the Lords. Very well then, oh Lord, they replied.

So then they sacrificed themselves. Hunahpu was sacrificed by Xbalanque. Each of his legs and arms was severed. His head was cut off and placed far away. His heart was dug out and placed on a leaf.

Now all these Lords of the Underworld were drunk at the site, as Xbalanque went on dancing. Arise, he said, and immediately he was brought back to life again. Now the Lords rejoiced greatly.

According to the Popol Vuh, a ball game played an important role in the creation of mankind. The courts built out of stone where this game was played since at least 1000 BC were everywhere, albeit of different sizes. The ball is made of rubber, and played with the hip by two teams consisting of two to six players. That those players would be regularly sacrificed, as is sometimes suggested, seems rather unlikely though.

Now it was on the path leading to the underworld where they played ball. Thus the Lords of Xibalba, One Death and Seven Death, heard them. What is happening on the surface of the Earth? They are just stomping about and shouting. May they be summoned here therefore. They shall come to play ball and we shall defeat them.

Then was the arrival of the messengers of One death and Seven death. Go you warriors of the council to summon One Hunahpu and Seven Hunahpu. Tell them when you arrive: Thus say the Lords: they must come, say the Lords to you.

They must come here to play ball with us that we may be invigorated by them. Truly we are greatly amazed at them. Thus they must come say the Lords. May they bring here their implements, their yokes, their arm protectors and their rubber ball as well.

On the southern hemisphere, the tropical trade winds blow mainly from the southeast. As the winds are forced upwards by the Andes mountains, the air cools down and releases its moisture. As a result, the Pacific side is left with very little rainfall. Along the dry Pacific Coast we find the Nazca, famous for their Nazca Lines. But we’ll skip them for now and focus on the lesser known Moche, a rising star in the region.

The Moche built impressive temples, pyramids and other Adobe structures. Their skills in metal working were also among the highest in the world. Trade took place with regions as far away as the Amazon.

Their sophisticated irrigation systems allowed the Moche to increase the yields of products such as corn, beans and cotton. Due to the lack of written records little can be said with certainty about Moche society. There is a wealth of beautiful pottery though, richly decorated with images of important people, mythological narratives and everyday life. Burial sites point to a large divide between the upper and lower social classes. At the same time, warfare and human sacrifice seem to have played an important role.

Lake Titicaca sits at an altitude of nearly 4000 meters above sea level. Today, climate change is causing the lake to shrink more and more. But at the time, it must have been a very rich source of fish and other necessities. The inhabitants of Chirippa at the south coast, had already developed the cultivation of quinoa as an agricultural crop. At the end of the first century though, the ancient Chirippa culture had started to decline, and would soon be succeeded by the better known Tiwanaku.

The Montículo served as a public ritual space, where ancestors are venerated and foods are served and possibly stored as well. It was probably in use from about 1500 BC. The platform mount measures 50 by 50 meters and has at least three building levels. Similar structures can be found underneath that were deliberately buried, possibly as part of a ritual, that included burning. Why this was done remains a mystery. Might the constellations in the sky have shifted a little bit? Or had a new dynasty come to power?

In 79 AD, Mount Vesuvius erupted and buried both Pompeii and Herculaneum under a thick layer of ashes and rubble. In that same year, a new dynasty had indeed come to power in Rome. Titus succeeded his father Vespasian, to become the second emperor of the Flavian Dynasty. But Titus reign was short-lived as he died in 81 AD. He was then succeeded by his younger brother Domitian.

Apparently, this was precisely what Vespasian had wanted to prevent from happening. At least according to Roman writer Suetonius, who speaks rather skeptical of Domitian’s capabilities:

At the beginning of his reign he used to spend hours in seclusion every day doing nothing but catch flies and stab them with a keenly sharpened stylus. Consequently, when someone once asked whether anyone was in there with Caesar, Vibius Crispus made the witty reply: “Not even a fly.”

Before long though, Domitian emerged as an autocratic ruler, who interfered with everything. He anointed himself Dominus et Deus, meaning Lord and God, while his wife Domitia was named Augusta. Yet on balance, Suetonius initially judged the new emperor favorably. Finally something was done about corruption, and the concept of bread and games was restricted. At least as far as the free distribution of food was concerned.

The organization of games and theater on the other hand, continued on a grand scale. Expensive building projects, such as his own palace on Palatine Hill, also served to elevate Domitian’s prestige. Next to his brother the great Titus, Domitian may well have felt underappreciated. With his military campaigns he aimed to rectify this injustice, but with rather poor results, according to Suetonius anyway.

His campaigns he undertook partly without provocation, and partly of necessity. That against the Chatty was uncalled for, while the one against the Sarmatians was justified, by the destruction of a legion with its commander. He made two against the Dacians. The first when Oppius Sabinus, an ex-consul, was defeated.

And the second on the overthrow of Cornelius Fuscus, prefect of the Praetorian Guard, to whom he had entrusted the conduct of the war. After several battles of varying success, he celebrated a double triumph over the Chatti and the Dacians. His victories over the Sarmatians he commemorated merely by the offering of a laurel crown to Jupiter of the Capitol.

More and more, Domitian’s cruelty and self-glorification gained the upper hand. No one’s possessions were safe, from the need to raise funds for his construction projects and military adventures. According to Suetonius, Domitian was deeply hated by the Senate, but popular among the people for his practical and pragmatic attitude. As for Suetonius, he had very little regard for Domitian’s vanity and small mindedness:

He was so sensitive about his baldness that he regarded it as a personal insult, if anyone else was twitted with that defect, in jest or in earnest; though in a book “On the Care of the Hair,” which he published and dedicated to a friend, he wrote the following by way of consolation to the man and himself: Do you not see that I am too tall and comely to look on, and yet the same fate awaits my hair, and I bear with resignation the ageing of my locks in youth. Be assured that nothing is more pleasing than beauty, but nothing shorter lived.

See you! In the next decade

Once Upon a Decade 90-100 AD

From Africa Always Something New

In the year 97, Chinese envoy Gan Ying was sent on a mission to a mythical Empire in the West. Is he going to see Rome? But first of all, we want to see for ourselves the truth in the ancient saying: “From Africa, always something new.”

As the earth rotates, a wobble occurs that produces a 20000-year cycle. During this cycle, earth’s climate zones shift to the north and back south again. This is why, some 12000 years ago, the Sahara was a green Savannah with lakes and rivers, as is also shown by ancient rock paintings. But between 5,000 and 3,000 BC, the climate started to get drier. Once we arrive at the first century, weather conditions are more like today’s, or perhaps a little bit wetter still.

The original, ancient inhabitants of the vast areas of North Africa are referred to as Berbers, or rather Amazigh as they would prefer it themselves. The Amazigh people are not a homogeneous group, as each region has its own traditions, history, and language. These are closely related though and belong to the group of Berber languages.

A unique script named Tiffinagh had already been developed in the first millennium BC. Unfortunately, no writings have been preserved. There are a number of other sources though. One is he Natural History, an encyclopedia written by Pliny the Elder, who was a Roman scientist and a close friend of Emperor Vespasian.

The 37 books cover a wide range of topics, varying from geography to biology, astronomy and so on, based on Aristotle’s division of nature into a mineral, vegetable and animal world. After Pliny the Elder died in the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD, the work was completed by his son Pliny the Younger. About the Atlas Mountains it says this:

A religious horror steals imperceptibly over the feelings of those who approach, and they feel themselves smitten with awe at the stupendous aspect of its summit, which reaches beyond the clouds, and well nigh approaches the very orb of the moon

At night, they say, it gleams with fires innumerable lighted up; it is then the scene of the gambols of the Aegipans and the Satyr crew, while it re-echoes with the notes of the flute and the pipe, and the clash of drums and cymbals

It is believed that the desertification of the Berber homelands contributed to the rise of Egypt around 3,000 BC, and that many elements known to be Egyptian, may have deeper Amazigh origins. A mummy found in Libya, for instance, is dated back to 4,000 BC, which is 1,000 years earlier than the first Egyptian mummies. Could that be what the ancient Egyptians meant, when they informed the Greek about a great mythical empire named Atlantis, located beyond the Pillars of Hercules?

In any case, the worship of ancestors, and the preparations for an afterlife, seem to have been of profound importance to the Berbers. As evidenced, for example, by what the Greek historian Herodotus wrote about a Libyan tribe known as the Nasamones:

As for their manner of swearing and divination, they lay their hands on the graves of the men reputed to have been the most just and good among them, and by these men they swear; their practice of divination is to go to the tombs of their ancestors, where after making prayers they lie down to sleep, and take for oracles whatever dreams come to them

Herodotus also notes that none of the Libyan tribes eat the meat of cows, as they all honor Isis, an Egyptian goddess. Amon, God of the Winds and King of Gods, was also a remarkable common deity. His most famous temple in ancient Libya was at Siwa, an oasis in Egypt still inhabited by Amazigh today. The Egyptians combined Amon with several of their other gods, while the Phoenicians merged Amon with Baäl to become Baal-Amon. Early depictions of Rams in North Africa have been dated to almost 9000 BC.

The interaction between different regions was also observed by Roman historian Sallust. Around 50 BC, he wrote:

when Hercules died in Spain, as the Africans believe…

…Of those who made up the army, the Medes, Persians and Armenians crossed by ships into Africa and settled in the regions nearest to our sea, the Persians closer to the ocean…

…The Medes and Armenians connected themselves with the Libyans, who dwelled near the African sea;while the Getulians lay more to the south, not far from the torrid heats; and all these peoples soon built themselves towns, as, being separated from the Spaniards only by a strait, they began to trade with each other

At the end of the first century, the entire coastal region had been conquered by the Romans. This fertile area was crucial for supplying grain and other products to the Roman citizens. In the arid regions outside the coastal areas, the Amazigh peoples mainly lived a nomadic lifestyle. As Pliny the Elder puts it:

By the Greeks this region was called Metagonitis; and the Numidians received the name of “Nomades” from their frequent changes of pasturage; upon which occasions they were accustomed to carry their mapalia, or in other words, their houses, upon wagons

The deserts area now known as Fezzan was once an area of great lakes. But today, only a few pools remain. Nevertheless, the Garamantes managed to develop a remarkable civilization in this region. To achieve this, the use of ingenious irrigation systems must have been crucial. Slave trade may also have been an important factor.

The Garamantes likely spoke a Nilo-Saharan language that has since disappeared. So they were not Berbers, but the Romans accused the Garamantes of conspiring with them and declared them enemies anyway. Thus, in 19 BC the Garamantes had to surrender fifteen of their cities to the Romans. According to Pliny the Elder at least, who recognizes that they had not yet been able to reach the capital city of Garama:

Up to the present time it has been found impracticable to keep open the road that leads to the country of the Garamantes, as the predatory bands of that nation have filled up the wells with sand, which do not require to be dug for to any great depth, if you only have a knowledge of the locality. In the late war however, which, at the beginning of the reign of the Emperor Vespasian, the Romans carried on with the people of Oea, a short cut of only four days’ journey was discovered; this road is known as the “Paeter Caput Saxi”

The Tuareq are an ancient Amazigh people that still inhabit the Sahara today. Without their hospitality, we would never have made it through the desert, following the old trade routes. If Pliny the Elder is to be believed,

we should expect to find some of the most bizarre creatures once we arrive on the other side.

The Blemmyae are said to have no heads, their mouths and eyes being seated in their breasts. The Satyrs, beyond their figure, have nothing in common with the manners of the human race, and the form of the Aegipani is such as is commonly represented in paintings

Fortunately, reality is quite different. What we do find is once again a tremendous diversity of communities and tribes, grouped into the Niger-Congo language family. They were successful farmers, and over the past millennia they had gradually extended their influence from West Africa into Southern and Eastern Africa.

The various cultures all have their own stories and chants, centered on the belief in a supernatural spirit world that permeates everything. Music and dance may serve as gateways to this realm. Deceased humans, as well as animals or objects, continue to exist in the spirit world and can exert their influence or interact with the physical world. Thus, it’s crucial to honor the spirits of the ancestors.

Further south, we meet the Koishan, nomadic living peoples known for their ancient click languages. Genetic evidence suggests that around 70,000 years ago humanity became almost extinct and that one specific group took it upon themselves to repopulate the Earth. The Koishan are believed to be direct descendants of this community, the ancestors of all of us.

We move on to the east coast, where favorable climatic conditions contributed to the rise of the great Kingdom of Aksum around 150 BC. Although most of its wealth and power came from managing various trade routes between India and Roman cities. Which is probably why in the first century, Greek served as the lingua franca.

The first historical mention of Axum comes from a Greek trading guide known as the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, written by an unknown author, sometime around 50 AD. About the important harbour city of Adulis it says:

“There are imported into these places, undressed cloth made in Egypt for the Berbers; robes from Arsinoe; cloaks of poor quality dyed in colors; double- fringed linen mantles;

many articles of Hint glass, and others of murrhine, made in Diospolis; and brass, which is used for ornament and in cut pieces instead of coin; sheets of soft copper, used for cooking-utensils and cut up for bracelets and anklets tor the women; iron, which is made into spears used against the elephants and other wild beasts, and in their wars…

…There are exported from these places ivory, and tortoise-shell and rhinoceros-horn”

With so much going on along the trade routes between East and West, it’s no surprise that the Chinese wanted to explore these roads even further. Han China was prospering and all kinds of innovations were being developed. Chinese products were already known to the Romans, even if only the very rich could afford them.

At the same time, the Chinese were aware of a large empire in the distant West they called Da Qin, comparable to their own. Although it was written in the 5th century, The Book of the Later Han covers the history of the Eastern Han Dynasty in the first and second century. But Rome is also discussed:

“They have all the precious and rare things that come from the various foreign kingdoms. They make gold and silver coins. Ten silver coins are worth one gold coin. They trade with Persia and India by sea. The profit margin is ten to one. The people of this country are honest in business; they don’t have two prices. Grain and foodstuffs are always in good supply. The resources of the state are abundant. When envoys from a neighbouring kingdom arrive at their border, they use the courier stations to get to the royal capital, and when they arrive, they give them gold coins.

The king of this country always wanted to send envoys to the Han, but Persia, wishing to control the trade in multi-coloured Chinese silks, blocked the route to prevent them getting to China”

Direct communication between Rome and China had not yet occurred though. But in the year 97, General Ban Chao sent his envoy Gan Ying on a mission to Rome via the Silk Road. Apparantly, the Parthians didn’t want to give up their lucrative control over the trade routes, and discouraged Gan Ying from ever reaching his destination. As reported in the Book of the Later Han:

“He reached Tiaozhi next to a large sea. He wanted to cross it, but the sailors of the western frontier of Parthia said to him:”The ocean is huge. Those making the round trip can do it in three months if the winds are favourable. However, if you encounter winds that delay you, it can take two years. That is why all the men who go by sea take stores for three years. The vast ocean urges men to think of their country, and get homesick, and some of them die.”

When Gan Ying heard this, he gave up his plan

Fan Ye – Book of the Later Han – The Western Regions 10

Fan Ye – Book of the Later Han – The Western Regions 12

Periplus of the Erythraean Sea 4/ 6

Pliny the Elder – The Natural History – 5.8

Pliny the Elder – Historia Naturalis – book 5 ch. 2

Pliny the Elder – Historia Naturalis – book 5 chapter 1

Herodotus, The Histories 4.172

Gaius Sallustius – The Jugurthine War 18

Pliny the Elder – The Natural History – 5.5

Once Upon a Decade 100-110 AD

Keeping Time

Is decline setting in, after the turbulent first century, or has an era of progress and stability arrived? To find out, we sail to China and India, then explore Roman morals. But first, we’ll take some time to talk about calendars.

The year 100 never really existed because at that time, every region had its own method for counting the months and years, each with different calendars. These were of sacred importance for the timing of ceremonial events, which were often linked to agricultural seasons. But calendars were also essential for astronomy, and navigation.

Naturally, the cycle of day and night is the first indicator to keep track of the passage of time. This is caused by earth’s rotation, as we know today. The moon rotates as well, but in sync with its orbit around earth. In other words, the moon is tidally locked to earth, which is why we always see the same side of it.

That said, the phases of the moon form a pattern that’s been another basic element of calendars since ancient times. It’s also where regularity ends and confusion begins. This is because those lunar cycles are completed in just under 12 and a half times a year. Thus, a lunar year of 12 months is about 11 days shorter than a solar year. Most lunar calendars rectify this by adding an extra month, every three years or so.

Unlike lunar calendars, a solar calendar has a fixed date for the beginning of the new year. The Gregorian calendar is the best-known example of this. It was developed in the 16^th century, based on the old Julian calendar. Nowadays, this lunarsolar calendar is effectively the global standard.

It has one problem though, which is that a year is not exactly 365 days, but almost a quarter of a day longer. To correct for this, a leap year of 366 days is needed about every 4 years.

Many ancient megalithic structures may have served as calendars, by precisely determining the start of a new year. Anyone could do this themselves, by simply measuring the length of a particular shadow at certain times. The further away from the equator, of course, the more obvious this pattern will become.

Observing the night sky and the zodiac, rather than the sun, is another ancient method to define a year. This is known as a sidereal year, and has also been widely used for the creation of calendars. A sidereal year, however, is about 20 minutes longer than a solar year. This divergence is caused by Earth’s slight wobble in a cycle of approximately 26,000 years, as we saw in the previous episode. A difference of 20 minutes per year, amounts to just one day every 72 years. In the long run though, this does add up.

In India, for instance, several ancient Hindu calendars, known as panchangam, are still in use today, alongside the official Gregorian calendar. These are all connected to the Zodiac signs that astrologers rely on. But since they are based on a sidereal year, the 12 astrological periods have shifted almost a month into the future.

If we go the other way, back in time to around the 4th century, we arrive at the Surya Siddhanta, an old Hindu textbook about the complex motions of the various celestial bodies. Here we learn more about the threefold nature of time itself:

I teach you the same ancient science, that the Sun itself once taught. The difference is caused only by time, and the revolution of the Yugas. Time is the destroyer of worlds, and the all-pervading Creator. The latter is of two kinds: observable or subtle, named shaped and shapeless.

Invisible forms of Divine time situated in the zodiac produce the motions of the planets, and are called the conjunction, apsis, and nodes.

Owing to the greatness of its orb, the sun is drawn away only a very little; the moon, by reason of the smallness of its orb, is attracted much more.

Mars and the rest, due to their small size, are drawn away violently by the supernatural beings called conjunction and apsis, causing their motions to deviate greatly.

Thus do the planets, attracted by those beings and carried by the wind, move in the heavens.

Both traditional Indian calendars and the Gregorian calendar have a similar seven-day week, likely traceable back to the Sumerians. Their ancient lunisolar calendar was also based on a sidereal year and for all we know, it goes back to 2,700 BC.

But we return to the 2nd century. By now, the 200,000 verses of the Mahabharata have largely been written down. The Bhagavad Gita is only a small part of this great epic. It tells about Lord Krishna, acting as charioteer for Arjuna. At some point, Krishna shows his divine nature, and we hear about a similar concept of Time as we saw in the Surya Siddhanta:

The Supreme Lord said:

“I am Time, the mighty world-destroyer, I am here to destroy the world. Even without you, all the warriors gathered here for battle will die”

“Therefore rise and attain honor. Conquer your enemies, and enjoy a prosperous kingdom. They’re already slain by Me. O Greatest of Archers, just be my instrument”

At the start of the second century, the Satavahana dynasty had established a dominant position in North India under the legendary king Gautamiputra Satakarni. When his reign took place is not exactly known; what we do know is that he was named after his mother Gautami Balashri.

In the fertile region, cities were growing, thanks to a florishing agricultural economy. This prosperity was multiplied by the vibrant trade routes that reached as far as Rome and China. No surprise, then, that the Satavahanas seemed quite welcoming to the enormous diversity of religions and cultures in their empire.

Yet the focus may have been more on Hinduism, as the Satavahans referred to themselves as Brahmins. In the Hindu system of social orders known today as the caste system, the Brahmins constitute the highest of the four varnas. The Kshatriyas form the military and ruling class, but they are supposed to submit to the spiritual authority of the Brahmins.

The ever-increasing specialization in crafts and social classes goes together with the ongoing processes of urbanization and state formation. Together with better education and new technologies, this results in increased productivity and prosperity. But social classes come with social injustices. Not just because the lowest social classes hardly benefit from this system, or are excluded all together. But also because women lose out, as their equal position in society is sacrificed.

And then there’s the question whether one’s status is determined by birth, or can be obtained through good character and right actions. A question that even Shiva seems to grapple with in the Mahabharata. As he explains to his wife Parvati:

As I understand it, the Kshatriya, Vaisya, and Shudra acquire their status naturally. But to be born a Brahmin, O goddess, is difficult to attain. Having earned a higher varna, one should take good care of it. For by evil acts one loses his status.

If a Kshatriya or Vaisya live according to the dharma of a Brahmin, they will also attain the status of a Brahmin. But a Brahmin who abandons his duties and acts like a Kshatriya will fall from Brahminhood and is born into the Kshatriya class.

When wisdom gives way to greed and delusion, even those born a Brahmin descend to the status of a Vaisya. Whether a Brahmin descending to the level of a Vaisya or a Vaisya descending to that of a Shudra, by neglecting his own dharma and adopting the duties of others, he falls into hell. Cast out from his varna, such a twice-born sinks into the status of a Shudra.

In my opinion, even a Shudra who is pure in his class and excels in good qualities and virtuous actions should be recognized as a twice-born person. Neither birth, nor initiation, nor learning, nor lineage is the cause of being twice-born. One’s conduct is all that matters. Every Brahmin in this world owes it to his conduct, and his status is determined by occupation and character.

A Brahmin meditates on scriptures, maintains family life, engages in daily study, and practices charity and self-knowledge. Such a person, unwavering on the path of truth, devoted to sacred knowledge, ultimately attains the Brahman state.

Most Hindu texts were originally written in Sanskrit, an ancient language that belongs to the large group of Indo-European languages. Contrary to the languages of southern India which are known as Dravidian languages, and are of a very distinct origin. When it comes to religion though, the contrast is not as sharp, with various forms of Hinduism playing an imprortant role in the South as well.

Around 100 AD, Southern India had been dominated by 3 dynasties for centuries: the Cholas, the Cheras and the Pandyas. There must have been quite a bit of rivalry between the various kings and chiefs. Especially when control over the lucrative trade routes and ports was in play.

In the first century, Roman scholar Pliny the Elder already wrote about trade with India:

The subject is one well worthy of our notice, seeing that in no year does India drain our empire of less than five hundred and fifty millionsof sesterces, giving back her own wares in exchange, which are sold among us at fully one hundred times their prime cost.

To those who are bound for India, Ocelis is the best place for embarcation. If the wind, called Hippalus, happens to be blowing, it is possible to arrive in forty days at the nearest market of India, Muziris by name.

Another port, and a much more convenient one, is that which lies in the territory of the people called Neacyndi, Barace by name. Here king Pandiya used to reign, dwelling at a considerable distance from the market in the interior, at a city known as Madurai. The district from which pepper is carried down to Barace in boats hollowed out of a single tree, is known as Kuttanadu.

We set sail to the east, heading for Han China. 100 AD would be the 12th year of Emperor He of Han. It should also be a Year of the Rabbit, according to the Chinese calendar. The Taichu calendar was introduced in 104 BC, based on even older calendars. Once again, the zodiac serves as a useful timepiece.

The Han dynasty is enjoying a prosperous time. Science, trade and economy are thriving, and the population is growing. But in the political system, the first cracks are starting to appear, as Emperor He of Han was only 9 years old when he was crowned in 88 AD.

Behind every child emperor, there’s a power-hungry widow, one might say. Indeed, the influence of the many widows at the court in Luo Yang was growing. Moreover, the eunuchs were increasingly claiming their fair share as well. The conflicts arising from these power struggles are destined to play an important role in the coming decades.

But for now, we’ll take some time to meet philosopher Wang Chong, who died around 100 AD. Wang provides us with a more rational, critical view of the various myths and superstitions around him, in his book titled “Lunheng,” which means something in the vein of “Discussions to Counterbalance.” About the infamous “Mandate from Heaven,” for instance, he says:

In regard to extraordinary calamities they say that, when of old a sovereign in his administration departed from the right way, Heaven reprimanded him by visiting him with calamities. Those calamities are manifold. Heat and cold are put forward as proof. When a prince punishes at a wrong time, it becomes cold, and

when he grants rewards, but not at the right moment, it becomes warm. The Spirit of Heaven reprimands a sovereign in the same manner, as a sovereign shows his displeasure to his subjects.

I say that this seems very doubtful to me. The calamities of a State are like the misfortunes of an individual. If they say that Heaven reprimands a sovereign through calamities, does it also punish an individual through his misfortunes? Since the individul is known to us, we may make use of the human body for comparison. A sickness of the body is like a calamity from Heaven.

When the circulation of the blood is not in order, a man contracts a disease, and when the wind and the air do not agree, the year develops calamities. Provided that Heaven blames the administration of a State by calamities, does it blame an individual by his sickness?

In the Roman Empire, the year 100 was actually the year 853 AUC, short for: “from the founding of the city.” After the assassination of Emperor Domitian in 96 AD, the Flavian dynasty came to an end. For once, the senate got to appoint a new emperor. This was Nerva, but he died of natural causes in the year 98, and was succeeded by his adoptive son, the great Emperor Trajan. We will be hearing a lot more from him in the next episode.

But first we want to take a look at Mos Maiorum, the “morals of the ancestors,” so to say. Mos Maiorum is a set of unwritten rules and traditional values, that have governed Roman society over the centuries. For some, like Domitian, it seemed to have been about no less, than saving the nation from moral decay, and the inevitable collapse.

The first of the several virtues is Fides, which stands for trustworthiness and fidelity. In a society where only a small elite can read or write, being able to trust someone’s word might be crucial.

Next comes Pietas, the dutiful devotion to family, Rome’s glorious history, and the Gods. To honor those, there’s Religio and Cultus: a sense of sanctity and allegiance to the various rituals.

Disciplina, simply discipline, cannot be too extreme, as it is of course of huge military importance. Should misfortune strike nonetheless, the virtue of Constantia is required to face hardship with evenness, as well as seriousness in the form of Gravitas. Such a true Roman man must have a great deal of Virtus.

As for women, they are expected to possess the counterpart of Virtus, which is Pudicitia. The latter is about modesty and chastity, but both represent the virtues of a strong and just person, who knows right from wrong.

By demonstrating all those virtues over the course of one’s life and career, Dignitas and Auctoritas are earned: respect and authority.

At all times, the extended family ties should be well cared for, and the strict hierarchies, within both society and the family, must be maintained. Ultimately though, what matters is the timelessness of friendship. As Cicero puts it:

There are people who give the palm to riches or to good health, or to power and office, many even to sensual pleasures. This last is the ideal of brute beast, and of the others we may say that they are frail and uncertain, and depend less on our own prudence than on the caprice of fortune.

All I can do is to urge on you to regard friendship as the greatest thing in the world, for there is nothing which so fits in with our nature, or is so exactly what we want in prosperity or adversity.

In the face of a true friend a man sees as it were a second self. So that where his friend is he is. If his friend be rich, he is not poor, though he be weak, his friend’s strength is his, and in his friend’s life he enjoys a second life after his own is finished.

Surya Siddhanta

ch. 1 Of the Mean Motions of the Planets – 9-10

ch. 2 Of the True Places of the Planets – 1 & 9-11

Bhagavad Gita chapter 11 verse 32-33

Mahabharata

13:131 (Sanskrit) or 13:143 (English)

Verses 6/12, 48/50 & 55/56

Pliny the Elder Historia Naturalis 6:26

Wang Chong – LunHeng, Chapter VI: On Reprimands

Once Upon a Decade 110-120 AD

Friends with the Emperor

Emperor Trajan takes the Roman Empire to its greatest extent, while Pliny the Younger and Cassius Dio show us around. Next we set sail for the beautiful Pyu States, and we meet the powerful eunuchs at the imperial court of Han China.

Although Cassius Dio was a Roman senator, he was born in Nicaea, which in those days was a Greek city. He was also a great historian, known for his 80 volume “Roman History,” which covers almost 1000 years of history, until the start of the third century.

Political propaganda and historical facts can be hard to separate, as we saw with iconically evil emperors such as Caligula or Nero. But a violent earthquake followed by a devastating tsunami, which according to Cassius Dio occurred in 115 AD, has been confirmed by archaeological research. Dio’s descriptions of this disaster, while colorful, are thus fairly accurate:

While the emperor was tarrying in Antioch a terrible earthquake occurred;

First there came, on a sudden, a great bellowing roar, and this was followed by a tremendous quaking. The whole earth was upheaved, and buildings leaped into the air; some were carried aloft only to collapse and be broken in pieces, while others were tossed this way and that as if by the surge of the sea, and overturned, and the wreckage spread out over a great extent even of the open country. The crash of grinding and breaking timbers together with tiles and stones was most frightful;

Even trees in some cases leaped into the air, roots and all. The number of those who were trapped in the houses and perished was past finding out; for multitudes were killed by the very force of the falling débris, and great numbers were suffocated in the ruins.

Trajan made his way out through a window of the room in which he was staying. Some being, of greater than human stature, had come to him and led him forth, so that he escaped with only a few slight injuries; and as the shocks extended over several days, he lived out of doors in the hippodrome.

Emperor Trajan’s miraculous escape in Antiochia must have been a bright spot in his otherwise not so great campaign in the Middle East. Trajan had arrived there in 113 AD to start a war against Rome’s eternal rival, the great Parthian Empire. Ultimately, he would not see Rome again. In the year 117 he fell ill, and died on the way home.

Trajan’s fate brings to mind that of Alexander the Great, conqueror of the mighty Persian Empire, four centuries earlier. This is no coincidence, for Trajan seems to have had a great admiration for Alexander. This may even have been a hidden motive for his campaign against the Parthian Empire. The official reason given, however, was that the new king of Armenia had been appointed, without first consulting Rome.

Parthia itself was divided between Osroes I who ruled the Western parts including Mesopotamia, and Vologases III who governed the east. Thus, in 114 Ad Trajan was able to seize control of Armenia. Without much resistance, he advanced further into Mesopotamia until he reached the Persian Gulf. If Cassius Dio is to be believed, this is also where Trajan recalles Alexander once again:

Then the emperor came to the ocean itself, and when he had learned its nature and had seen a ship sailing to India, he said: “I should certainly have crossed over to the Indi too, if I were still young.” For he began to think about the Indi and was curious about their affairs, and he counted Alexander a lucky man. Yet he would declare that he himself had advanced farther than Alexander, and would so write to the senate, although he was unable to preserve even the territory that he had subdued.

Indeed, holding on to the captured territories proved to be difficult. Especially when Jewish rebels took the opportunity to rise up against the Romans, and destroy their temples in places like Cyprus and Egypt.

The way Cassius Dio paints the Jewish people would certainly be considered extremely anti-Semitic today. Of course, the Jews weren’t the only ones to be damned by the Romans. The Carthaginians, for example, went before them, not to mention the Celtic druids.

Anti-Semitism is sometimes called the “longest hatred,” as it can be traced back to Egyptian priest Manetho in the 3rd century BC. In 38 AD, thousands of Jews were killed in Alexandria, which harbored a large Jewish community. The city was named after its founder Alexander the Great, which brings us to another association with Emperor Trajan, namely his homosexuality.

In Greco-Roman culture, this wasn’t necessarily an issue. In matters of sexual relations, society seemed to have been mostly concerned with preserving the hierarchies. A partner’s social status might therefore be more important than gender or even age.

Still, Trajan’s lack of interest in the opposite sex did not go unnoticed. Cassius Dio, for instance, tells the story of a Syrian king who, fearing his arrival, manages to exploit Trajan’s weakness:

Leaving garrisons at opportune points, Trajan came to Edessa, and there saw Abgarus for the first time. For, although Abgarus had previously sent envoys and gifts to the emperor on numerous occasions, he himself, first on one excuse and then another, had failed to put in an appearance, as was also the case with Mannus, the ruler of the neighbouring portion of Arabia, and Sporaces, the ruler of Anthemusia.

On this occasion, however, induced partly by the persuasions of his son Arbandes, who was handsome and in the pride of youth and therefore in favour with Trajan, and partly by his fear of the latter’s presence, he met him on the road, made his apologies and obtained pardon, for he had a powerful intercessor in the boy.

Accordingly he became Trajan’s friend and entertained him at a banquet; and during the dinner he brought in his boy to perform some barbaric dance or other.

Trajan was born in 53 AD in Italica, in present-day Spain. He was married to Pompeia Plotina, but although they seemed to have a very good relationship, the marriage remained childless nevertheless. Rising through the ranks, he eventually became the new emperor in the year 98.

3 Years later, Trajan went to war with the various tribes of Dacia, largely corresponding to modern day Romania. Domitian had gone before him but was only partially successful. Trajan did better, and to honor his triumph, a column was erected in Rome.

It tells the story of his struggles against the barbaric kings, showing for instance Trajan’s skills in building bridges and other structures. After initial succes in 102, the war erupted again in 105 AD. A year later, Trajan achieved a final victory, and Dacia became the latest extension of the Roman Empire.

Pliny the Younger was a lawyer, writer and politician, born in Como. Like Trajan, who wasn’t even Italian, he was not from a patrician family. But they were more than wealthy enough to belong to the elite class of equites.

Pliny was a nephew of the famous scientist Pliny the Elder. With his uncle, he shared a profound love for nature, philosophy, and writing. Pliny the Younger wrote hundreds of letters to his fellow Roman citizens, including Emperor Trajan. Some of those have been preserved, which allows us a glimpse into his daily life:

If you ask any one, “What have you been doing to-day?” he will say, “Ooh, I have been attending a coming-of-age ceremony; I was at a betrothal or a wedding; so-and-so asked me to witness the signing of a will; I’ve been acting as witness to A, or I’ve been in consultation with B.”

All these occupations appear of paramount importance on the day in question, but if you remember that you repeat the round day after day, they seem a sheer waste of time, especially when you have got away from them into the country; for then the thought occurs to you, “What a number of days I have frittered away in these chilly formalities!” That is how I feel when I am at my Laurentine Villa and busy reading or writing, or even when I am giving my body a thorough rest and so repairing the pillars of my mind.

The sea, the shore, these are the true secret haunts of the Muses, and how many inspirations they give me, how they prompt my musings! Do, I beg of you, as soon as ever you can, turn your back on the din, the idle chatter, and the frivolous occupations of Rome, and give yourself up to study or recreation.

In his letters, Pliny the Younger shows a deep loyalty to Rome’s written laws. But also to the all-important moral values that govern society, such as Fides and Amicitia: trust and friendship. As illustrated by his humorous letter to Septicius Clarus, a prefect of the Praetorian Guard:

What a fellow you are! You promise to come to dinner and then fail to turn up! Well, here is my magisterial sentence upon you. You must pay the money I am out of pocket to the last as, and you will find the sum no small one.

I had provided for each guest one lettuce, three snails, two eggs, spelt mixed with honey and snow (you will please reckon up the cost of the latter as among the costly of all, since it melts away in the dish), olives from Baetica, cucumbers, onions, and a thousand other equally expensive dainties.

You would have listened to a comedian, or a reciter, or a harp-player, or perhaps to all, as I am such a lavish host. But you preferred to dine elsewhere, – where I know not – off oysters, sow’s matrices, sea-urchins, and to watch Spanish dancing girls!

Around 110, Pliny went to the province of Bythinia in modern day Turkey, where he would die a few years later. He was sent as special envoy of the emperor to the Greek city-states in that region, which enjoyed a high degree of self-government. But apparently, a need for stricter oversight had arisen.

Pliny reports directly to the emperor, with all due regards of course. In this correspondence a variety of legal matters is discussed, ranging from punishments like exile, to cases around Roman citizenship. One letter contains Pliny’s request to grant his friend, the famous historian Suetonius, “jus trium liberorum”.

These were special rights meant for those who had at least three children. But as a special honor, they were sometimes granted to others as well. Occasionally, freedmen are mentioned. As ex-slaves loyal to their former masters, they could obtain important administrative positions.

It’s no surprise that, especially when it comes to tax collection, Trajan is in favour of a strict enforcement of the law. But he’s also rather cautious when asked for more troops by local officials, perhaps with his military plans in Asia in mind. But Trajan wisely balances those interests with local customs and agreements, as well as general demands of fairness and common sense.

Now that corruption is being countered, and more money should become available for public works, the poor state of public structures like aqueducts is discussed, and plans for reconstructions are made. Here too, Trajan keeps a close eye on the balance of costs and benefits. After a huge fire in Nicomedia destroyed several buildings, among which the temple of Isis, Pliny requests permission to establish a fire brigade of 150 people. Here’s Trajan’s written answer:

You have conceived the idea that a guild of firemen might be formed in Nicomedia on the model of various others already existing. But it is to be remembered that your province of Bithynia and especially city states like Nicomedia, are the prey of factions.

Whatever name we may give to those who form an association, and whatever the reason of the association may be, they will soon degenerate into secret societies. It is better policy to provide appliances for mastering conflagrations and encourage property owners to make use of them, and, if occasion demands, press the crowd which collects into the same service.

Trade flourished, and along the belts and roads of the immense Roman Empire, Christianity was gaining popularity. After originating as a purely Jewish movement at the beginning of the first century, the message became more and more spread among non-Jews. No doubt at the expense of the traditional Roman gods and goddesses. The Romans may also have projected their hatred of the Jews onto the early Christians. Either way, by now Christianity is forbidden by law.

At least that’s what Pliny’s most famous letter to Trajan implies. In this epistel he asks for Trajan’s advice on the proper way to deal with those Christians. Pliny reports that even the countryside has now been infected, and that he hopes that a strict approach might still turn the tide.

Nevertheless, Pliny finds it hard to see those kind-hearted, law abiding Christians as criminals. And then there’s the problem that more and more false accusations are being made, apparently as an easy way to get rid of some adversary. In Trajan’s brief reply, he once again aims to strike the right balance:

You have adopted the proper course, my dear Pliny, in examining into the cases of those who have been denounced to you as Christians for no hard and fast rule can be laid down to meet a question of such wide extent.

The Christians are not to be hunted out; if they are brought before you and the offence is proved, they are to be punished, but with this reservation – that if any one denies that he is a Christian and makes it clear that he is not, by offering prayers to our deities, then he is to be pardoned because of his recantation, however suspicious his past conduct may have been.

But pamphlets published anonymously must not carry any weight whatever, no matter what the charge may be, for they are not only a precedent of the very worst type, but they are not in consonance with the spirit of our age.

Already during his lifetime, Trajan was called “Optimus Princeps:” the best emperor. From then on, every new emperor would be inaugurated saying: Be more fortunate than Augustus, and better than Trajan. He is also known as the second of the five good emperors, who oversaw a period of prosperity and progress.

Did we mention the trade routes? Midway to the far east, we pause to admire the beauty of the Pyu city-states. A few centuries earlier, the Pyu peoples arrived in this region from the north to cultivate their rice fields.

The language they spoke is related to modern day Birmese, a member of the extended family of Sino-Tibetan languages. Ancient-Indian Sanskrit was also in use, probably related to the trade relations cherished by the Pyu kingdoms.

As well as Pali, the sacred language of the Buddhist scriptures that form the basis for Theravada Buddhism. Theravada, or “The Way of the Elders,” is the more traditional form of Buddhism, centered around the Buddha and his teachings. Today it’s the main religion in this region, but as we move on to China we will see more of Mahayana Buddhism with its wealth of Bodhisattvas.

According to the Book of the Later Han, a king of Burma presented a group of acrobats from the Roman Empire to Emperor An of Han, in 120 AD. An of Han was only 13 years old when he was installed as the new emperor in 106 AD. Since then, the Empress Dowager Deng Sui was the de facto ruler of Han China. Although An’s wife, Empress Ansi, seemed to exercise a lot of power from behind the scenes as well.

Whether or not in various alliances with these women, the high-ranking eunuchs at the imperial court in Luo Yang saw opportunities for their own positions of power as well. Eunuchs are castrated men who played more or less significant roles in various ancient cultures, like Persia and Rome.

In ancient China, castration was used as punishment for adultery and indecent behavior. Not being able to produce offspring probably made for a very low status. But at the imperial court, the eunuchs were valued precisely for this condition, as they could be better trusted with serving the many women and widows and would not cause any succession issues. To have a better chance of gaining such a position at the imperial court, young men were castrated before the age of 10, in order to prevent masculine features.

But, besides the dangers of the operation itself, the hormonal imbalances that arise from it usually lead to serious health problems. As lower-ranking staff, eunuchs were also very much at the mercy of their masters. Yet, due to their direct access to the emperor, some of them managed to occupy very important government positions.

Chao Kao, for instance, is a powerful eunuch who served during the Qin Dynasty 300 years earlier. He is mentioned by Chinese philosopher Wang Chong in our final quotation:

The scholar-officials pretend that Sages are not born from human sperm, but that they are endowed with a special essence from Heaven.

The Shiking state that Yü and Hsieh were born unnaturally, issuing from their mother’s back

The statement of the Shiking that there was no rending and no tearing, so that the mother’s body was not much affected may be true, but the assertion that Yü and Hsieh issued from their mother’s back is irrational. When cicadas are born, they break forth from the back of the larvae. Did Heaven in generating those sages follow the law of the larvae?

In the world many persons die a sanguinary death by the sword, and it is not necessary that their first ancestor should have had an unnatural birth. When the Ch’in lost the empire, Yen Yüeh*) beheaded Hu Hai, and Hsiang Yü executed Che Ying. Was the forefather of the Ch’in, Po Yi born unnaturally? Ergo the thesis of natural and unnatural births based on the ancestors of the Three Dynasties is erroneous.

*) The son-in-law of the powerful eunuch Chao Kao, who contrived the death of the emperor

See you! In the next decade

Once Upon a Decade 120-130 AD

On the Mountains of the Gods

This time we will meet the German tribes, seemingly humble peoples but with a huge influence on history. We also want to know more about the mysterious cult of the Vestal Virgins in Rome. But first, we’re going to Teotihuacan, one of the greatest cities of the second century.

Some 50 miles south east of Mexico City lies the volcano Popocatépetl, better known locally as El Popo. It erupted as recently as December 2,000, forcing the evacuation of tens of thousands of residents from the area. But this eruption was nothing compared to the colossal disaster that happened in the first century. This event was of a type that occurs globally once every century, perhaps ten times more violent than the famous eruption of Pompeii in 79 AD.

The catastrophe seems to have acted as a catalyst for the rise of Teotihuacan. This ancient city with its magnificent pyramids lies about 50 miles north of El Popo. Construction of the pyramids was largely completed in the second century. Subsequently, the city grew into one of the largest in the world, with a population of 125,000 or more. Just as Teotihuacan rose seemingly out of nowhere, it began to decline from around 650 AD.

Many centuries later, likely in the 1300s, the Mexica came across the ruins of the long-abandoned city. Better known as the Aztecs, they gave the city its name, which means something like “Home of the Gods” in the Nahuatl language. The Aztecs arrived in the region only centuries later, but the Maya had been a great civilization for a long time, as we saw in a previous episode. According to Maya writings they called the city Puh, which means something like “The Reeds.” The Otomi were the original peoples of the region, but the hieroglyphs used in Teotihuacan have not yet been deciphered.

The people of Teotihuacan likely viewed their pyramids, at least in part, as a projection of the volcanoes in their area. For instance, there is the Great Pyramid of Cholula just about 20 miles from El Popo. Its Aztec name is Tlachihualtepetl, meaning “Constructed Mountain,” while Popocatépetl translates to “Smoking Mountain.” Construction of the first section began as early as 300 BC, and work continued for many hundreds of years afterward. It is now the world’s largest monument ever built.

Sacred mountains are part of mythologies from around the world, even in ancient Egypt, a land devoid of volcanoes or notable mountains. In one of his stories, supreme god Atum, the ancestor to all other gods, creates himself by rising from the primordial waters on the mountain Benben. The Benben stone is the top stone of the pyramid, and the hieroglyph for the word Benben includes a pyramid.

While the older Egyptian pyramids may have served to guide the death to their next destination, those of Teotihuacan look more like temples. The Pyramid of the Sun is the third largest in the world, and is situated along a central avenue. This avenue of the dead runs from the pyramid of the Moon in the north, to the Temple of Quetzalcoatl in the south at an angle of about 16 degrees. Which points it to a mountain known as Cerro Gordo. Wether the architects of Teotihuacan were also inspired by the constellation of Orion is unknown.

They certainly designed their street plan very carefully, with their sacred calendars in mind. One of the various cycles used for the sacred Maya calendar is a period of 260 days. The Temple of Quetzalcoatl is decorated with 260 heads of the Feathered Serpent, each with a hole, possibly to hold a marker for the day.

Quetzalcoatl is perhaps the most important deity throughout Mesoamerica. It is the ruler of the sky and wind, associated with Venus. But it was also the bringer of knowledge and wisdom. The Temple of The Feathered Serpent is the smallest of the three pyramids and was built a little bit later, around 150 AD. It is part of the Ciudadela, a large plaza with a number of temples, surrounded by a wall. It may have served as a gathering place to attend ceremonies, with enough space for the entire population of the city. Apparently its location was very carefully selected, as the course of the Rio San Juan had to be altered slightly.

Several hundred people were buried at the site, perhaps as part of the ceremony to inaugurate the temple. A tunnel under the pyramid leads to even more spaces underground. The closer to the pyramid, the higher the social status of the departed seems to be.

Teotihuacan has been a major proponent of Quetzalcoatl, but the oldest known depiction dates back to 900 BC and was found at the Olmec site in La Venta. This Quetzalcoatl is remarkably similar to the depictions of dragons, that have existed in China for thousands of years.

The prosperity of the city attracted a diversity of peoples, speaking all kinds of languages. Many were housed in large appartment buildings, in different neighborhoods, that reflected the various backgrounds and social status of their inhabitants. A powerfull upper class, perhaps of priests and shamans, lived in large and luxury houses near the Temple of Quetzalcoatl, inside the walls of the plaza.

Craftsmen and fine artists must have been in high demand, to create the city’s brilliant works of art in vibrant colors, and artistic murals of supernatural beauty. Perhaps not surprising, as the region is known for its peculiar mushrooms.

Rumbling noises, earthquakes and eruptions of fire, rocks and lava are the hallmarks of active volcanoes. But these terrifying events also contribute to a high level of soil fertility, enabling farmers to produce surpluses. This allowed labor to be freed from food production and redirected towards creating art and building monuments. The nearby presence of obsidian, a type of volcanic glass, must have been hugely important to the economy of Teotihuacan as well. Obsidian was used for beautiful artefacts, as well as a currency.

Trade in all kinds of products flourished. Teotihuacan extended its influence far beyond its own territory, be it through soft power or military might. Nevertheless, if we broadly distinguish two survival strategies—competition and cooperation—Teotihuacan in the second century appears to have been less about conflict, and more about trade.

We head to the northern regions of Europe, where the various Germanic tribes seem to rely more on a strategy of competition and warfare. No cities here, let alone pyramids. That said, the Germanic peoples have had a profound influence on the course of history—from the overthrow in 476 of the last emperor in Rome, to the wearing of trousers in modern times.

Rather than building cities, the Germanic people preferred to live in spacious farmhouses, deeply connected to their vast forests. They engaged in caring for their horses, and growing grain for their bread and, naturally, their beer. A simple life, only occasionally disrupted by foreign innovations—like paying for goods with silver.

That, at least, is the picture Roman historian Tacitus painted of the Germanic tribes in 98 AD. Society was organized on the basis of kinship and family, rather than hierarchy. The chiefs fight for victory; the companions for their chief, as Tacitus puts it:

They assemble, unless upon some sudden emergency, on stated days, either at the new or full moon, which they account the most auspicious season for beginning any enterprise.

…

An inconvenience produced by their liberty is, that they do not all assemble at a stated time, as if it were in obedience to a command; but two or three days are lost in the delays of convening. When they all think fit, they sit down armed. Silence is proclaimed by the priests, who have on this occasion a coercive power. Then the king, or chief, and such others as are conspicuous for age, birth, military renown, or eloquence, are heard; and gain attention rather from their ability to persuade, than their authority to command.

Tacitus – Germania 11

The wife does not bring a dowry to her husband, but receives one from him.

…

That the woman may not think herself excused from exertions of fortitude, or exempt from the casualties of war, she is admonished by the very ceremonial of her marriage, that she comes to her husband as a partner in toils and dangers; to suffer and to dare equally with him, in peace and in war…

Tacitus – Germania 18

…their slaves have not, like ours, particular employments in the family allotted them. Each is the master of a habitation and household of his own. The lord requires from him a certain quantity of grain, cattle, or cloth, as from a tenant; and so far only the subjection of the slave extends. His domestic offices are performed by his own wife and children.

Tacitus – Germania 25

According to Tacitus, the Germans looked to the flight of birds as an omen of future events, just as the Romans and other nations did. But they also interpreted the sounds of special horses, harnessed to a sacred chariot. And even twigs of fruit trees with certain marks, perhaps letters from the runic alphabet. But no written sources from the second century are available.

The Germanic languages originated from a region, overlapping northern Germany and southern Sweden. This is just one of many branches of the vast Indo-European language tree. The roots of this tree are believed to be with the Yamnaya people, roughly in present-day Ukraine.

Around 3500 BC, proto indo-european languages began to spread across an ever-widening area. This was made possible by technological advances developed in this area, such as chariots drawn by oxen or horses. This explains the similarities in mythology between such distant peoples as the Hindus in India, and the Greeks, Romans and Germans in Europe.

The Romans identified Thor with Jupiter, who both resemble Hindu god Indra. Thor is the son of Odin, who the Romans compared to Mercury. Tyr is seen as Mars, the god of war, and Freya as Venus. Their connection to the forests can still be heard in old fairy tales.

Human sacrifice was widespread across the world, and there is some evidence for this practice among Germanic tribes. But it was especially through their many conflicts with the Roman empire, that they made large sacrifices.

In 113 BC the Cimbrian War broke out, when 100,000s of people from northern tribes became displaced and drifted southward. Facing a common enemy in the Romans, they may have occasionally allied with Keltic warriors. In any case, several devastating defeats were inflicted on the Roman armies. It was only after Gaius Marius, a general from humble descent, was put in charge, that the Romans were able to drive the Germanic invaders out.

Since then, Rome’s influence grew even stronger, and under Augustus, the deified emperor, some Germanic territories were annexed. But in 9 AD, the Romans suffered a massive defeat in the Teutoburg Forest, losing several divisions, including their standards. It was now clear that in warfare, far from being backward barbarians, the Germans were very much a cause for alarm.

In 117 AD, Hadrian became the new emperor of the Roman Empire, succeeding the successful Emperor Trajan. After nearly a thousand years of expansion, Hadrian favored consolidation over further military conquests. But we will hear more about him in the next episode.

For now, we turn our attention to another important aspect of Roman society, which is the cult of the Vestal Virgins. A college of six priestesses, known as the Vestals, was charged with the important task of keeping an eternal flame burning in the Temple of Vesta, for the good of the Roman people. This tradition was likely initiated as early as the 7th century BC by King Numa Pompilius.

The Vestals were selected as young girls and took a vow to keep their virginity for 30 years. After that, they were allowed to mary. They received an excellent education, and their palace was equipped with all modern comforts.

The Vestals were supervised by the Vestalis Maxima, but the emperor in his role as the Pontifex Maximus had the final say. For while the Vestal Virgins were held in high esteem, they could also find themselves involved in Rome’s political affairs.

We conclude with a quote from Suetonius, the author of “The Twelve Caesars.” Suetonius had to live under Emperor Domitian, a demagogue known for his narrow-mindedness. Apparently, the punishments for loss of virginity that Domitian demanded were especially harsh:

The lewdness of the Vestal Virgins, which had been overlooked by his father and brother, he punished severely, but in different ways; offences committed before his reign, with death, and those since its commencement, according to ancient custom. For to the two sisters called Ocellatae, he gave liberty to choose the mode of death which they preferred, and banished their paramours. But Cornelia, the president of the Vestals, who had formerly been acquitted upon a charge of incontinence, being a long time after again prosecuted and condemned, he ordered to be buried alive; and her gallants to be whipped to death with rods in the Comitium; excepting only a man of praetorian rank, to whom, because he confessed the fact, while the case was dubious, and it was not established against him, though the witnesses had been put to the torture, he granted the favour of banishment.

(Suetonius Tranquillus – Domitianus 8)

Once Upon a Decade 130-140 AD

If Walls Could Talk

Imagine, the stories they would tell, if walls could talk. We take a journey from Hadrian’s Wall in the west, through the ports of India in the south, to the Great Wall of China in the east.

It is thanks to monumental structures such as Hadrian’s Wall, that Rome’s mastery of engineering and strategy will not be forgotten. This four-meter-high barrier stretched across Britain, from Wallsend in the east to the far west coast. More than just a wall, it was part of an extensive fortification system, reinforced with multiple layers of defense. Along the entire length of the wall, milecastles were built with a small garrison, along with several larger forts that housed some 600 men.

More than being present in Rome, Emperor Hadrian was travelling around, personally assessing the situation in each region. Unlike his predecessors, who governed mainly from the capital and only occasionally visited the provinces to quell rebellions, or make a new conquest. In the year hundredtwentytwo, Hadrian arrived in the British Isles. The northern frontier had long been unstable, and clashes with Celtic tribes, such as the Brigantes, took their toll.

Unsatisfied with the earthen barrier already in place, Hadrian ordered the construction of his wall. Three Roman legions, supported by auxiliary troops and local craftsmen, took around six years to complete it’s construction, with work continuing afterward.

When it comes to written sources on Hadrian, we basically have just two: the Historia Augusta and the writings of Cassius Dio. While the Historia Augusta wasn’t composed until the end of the fourth century, Cassius Dio completed his Roman History at the beginning of the third century. Dio was of Greek descent, but he had firsthand experience with Roman politics, having served in public positions such as senator or consul. Unfortunately, much of his work has been lost, but what remains shows his sharp and critical perspective. So, we let Dio tell the story:

“Hadrian travelled through one province after another, visiting the various regions and cities and inspecting all the garrisons and forts.

…

He personally viewed and investigated absolutely everything, not merely the usual appurtenances of camps, such as weapons, engines, trenches, ramparts and palisades, but also the private affairs of every one, both of the men serving in the ranks and of the officers themselves, their lives, their quarters and their habits, and he reformed and corrected in many cases practices and arrangements for living that had become too luxurious.

He drilled the men for every kind of battle, honouring some and reproving others, and he taught them all what should be done. And in order that they should be benefited by observing him, he everywhere led a rigorous life and either walked or rode on horseback on all occasions, never once at this period setting foot in either a chariot or a four-wheeled vehicle.”

Cassius Dio – Roman History – Epitome of Book 69

Publius Aelius Hadrian was born in 76 A.D. in Italica, in present-day Spain. His father was Senator Hadrian Afer, a relative of Marcus Traianus, also from Italica, who would go on to become Emperor Trajan. But long before that, when young Hadrian was only 10 years old, both his parents died. He was then placed under the guardianship of Trajan, together with Publius Attianus, the future Praetorian prefect.

Not long after Trajan became emperor in 98 AD, Hadrian married Trajan’s niece, Vibia Sabina. As the story goes, this scheme was plotted by Trajan’s powerful wife, fittingly named Empress Plotina. But Trajan himself seemed a lot less enthusiastic about his own protégé. He certainly had no intention to adopt Hadrian as his successor right away, or even help him become a consul.

In fact, Trajan may never have appointed a successor at all. Similar to the dramatic exit 4 centuries earlier of Alexander the Great, of whom Trajan was a great admirer. At least according to Dio, but the sources contradict each other. What we can be sure of, is that serious doubts remained about Hadrian’s legitimacy as emperor. Says Dio:

“My father, Apronianus, who was governor of Cilicia, had ascertained accurately the whole story about him

…

in particular stating that the death of Trajan was concealed for several days in order that Hadrian’s adoption might be announced first. This was shown also by Trajan’s letters to the senate, for they were signed, not by him, but by Plotina, although she had not done this in any previous instance.”

Cassius Dio – Roman History – Epitome of Book 69

In any case, in the year 117 Hadrian became the new emperor, granting the old one his rightful place among the gods. He started off his reign with the execution of four rival consuls, hardly the best way to foster good relationships with the Senate, even if he denied being responsible.

“Hadrian, though he ruled with the greatest mildness,

was nevertheless severely criticized for slaying several

of the best men in the beginning of his reign and again

near the end of his life, and for this reason he came

near failing to be enrolled among the demigods.”

Cassius Dio – Roman History – Epitome of Book 69

Perhaps the mistrust was mutual, as Hadrian didn’t seem to feel quite at home in Rome. Coming from Spain himself, he believed that the provinces deserved more equality with the centre of his empire. Already as a young man, he had shown a deep passion for Greek literature and philosophy. Once emperor, he was the first to wear a beard, demonstrating his profound admiration for Hellenic culture.

In Rome, virtus and auctoritas, values like courage and standing, had long been tied to succes on the battlefield. For a soldier, the ultimate honor was the corona muralis, or “crown of the wall,” awarded to the first man to scale an enemy fortress. For generals, the greatest distinction was to be hailed as imperator by their troops.

Hadrian may well have shared this warrior ethos while still under the watch of Trajan. But when the weight of empire fell on his own shoulders, Hadrian recognized that further conquests were becoming increasingly costly. After centuries of relentless expansion, he took the empire in a different direction, consolidating its borders rather than keep expanding forever. He worked to resolve ongoing conflicts and refrained from launching new wars. From Britain to the Rhine and the Middle East, he reinforced Rome’s frontiers with defensive fortifications known as the limes. Indeed, this was the limit.

Hadrian’s walls were not just a military strategy, they served an important economic purpose as well. Literally tariff walls, they enabled Rome to collect taxes more effectively. Trade in all kinds of goods brought great prosperity, and the Roman state did not want to miss out on its share of the pie.

As one might expect, Hadrian’s novel ideas were not limited to economics. A lover of art and architecture, he designed the biggest temple of Rome, dedicated to Venus and Roma. His Library of Athens among other public buildings, earned him the title “Graeculus,” Little Greek. If you asked him, he was probably the greatest builder ever. At least according to Dio:

“his ambition was insatiable, and hence he practised all conceivable pursuits, even the most trivial; for example, he modelled and painted, and declared that there was nothing pertaining to peace or war, to imperial or private life, of which he was not cognizant.

All this, of course, did people no harm; but his jealousy of all who excelled in any respect was most terrible and caused the downfall of many, besides utterly destroying several. For, inasmuch as he wished to surpass everybody in everything, he hated those who attained eminence in any direction.”

Cassius Dio – Roman History – Epitome of Book 69

Hadrian introduced a number of legal reforms, no doubt with the intention of promoting the Republican ideal of legal equality. Ordinary people could face brutal punishments for minor offences, such as being sent to the mines, or the arena for more serious crimes. High ranking citizens, the honestiores, would get off with paying a fine, or in more severe cases the loss of civil rights, or banishment. Hadrian granted more citizens the priviliges of honestiores, but by doing so, he only further entrenched the divide between social classes.

On the other hand, he also limited the punishments that slaves could suffer somewhat. Yet Hadrian is not seen as particularly friendly to slaves and lower classes, but rather as a traditionalist, who required senators and other honestiores to wear the toga in public.

In a previous episode, we talked about the apparent homosexuality of then Emperor Trajan, and how society was more concerned with maintaining its hierarchies than with gender or even age. Hadrian too was involved with a Greek young man named Antinous. Perhaps, in Hadrian’s mind, their perfect union symbolized the fusion of Roman vigor with the beauty of Greece. Tragedy struck in the year 130, when Antinous died while travelling through Egypt.

Exactly what happened remains obscure. Did he drown in the Nile because he couldn’t swim? Or was he sacrifized in some occult ritual they were engaged in? In any case, Antinous was deified by Hadrian, and a new city named Antinopolis was built, as the centre of a widespread Hellenistic cult, that lasted until the 4^th century.

As scandalous as all this may be, it also shows Rome’s tolerance for religious diversity. All that seemed to matter was to honor the emperor and, of course, pay taxes. Even the early Christians were not considered a threat to the Roman state at this point. Yet, Hadrian’s dream of a unified, Greek-Roman empire inevitably clashed with ancient Jewish traditions.

Issues like his plans for Jerusalem, or his alleged ban on circumcision, did not sit well with the Jews. In hundred32, a revolt broke out in Judea, led by Simon bar Kokhba. The early Christians in Judea would rather not get involved, even if most were from Jewish descent. Not only because Bar Kokhba presented himself as the true Messiah, but for other good reasons as well.

Indeed, Hadrian responded with devastating force. His legions crushed the insurgents, and by hundred35, Judea was practically depopulated. The province was renamed Syria Palestine, and a temple to Jupiter was built on the ruins of the Second Temple, as was the plan. Jerusalem itself was rebuilt as a Roman town named Aelia Capitolina, which would remain its name until the 4^th century. Jews were no longer allowed to stay.

In his final years, Hadrian suffered from severe illness. This forced him to consider his succession more seriously. The elderly Servianus apparently criticized his choices, since he had imagined his own grandson for that position. As Dio explains:

“Servianus before being executed asked for fire, and as he offered incense he exclaimed: “That I am guilty of no wrong, ye, O Gods, are well aware; as for Hadrian, this is my only prayer, that he may long for death but be unable to die.”

…

There is, indeed, a letter of his in existence which gives proof of precisely this — how dreadful it is to long for death and yet be unable to die.“

Cassius Dio – Roman History – Epitome of Book 69

And indeed, as the story goes, Hadrian had to be prevented from ending his suffering more than once. But in 138, he finally died. The cause of death is impossible to know for certain, but there are some clues that point to problems with his heart and circulation. Even if he was known for his love of hunting and relatively healthy lifestyle.

On some marble statues, a crease in the earlobes is clearly visible. Known as Frank’s sign, these marks could be associated with coronary artery disease or other blood vessel related issues. Dio says that Hadrian suffered from nosebleeds and oedema. It is also notable that Hadrian’s parents both died rather young.

Hadrian eventually adopted Antoninus Pius as his successor, who in turn made sure that the Senate granted Hadrian his deification. Hadrian also arranged for Marcus Aurelius to be adopted by Antoninus. According to Dio, Hadrian informed the Senate in this manner:

“I have not been permitted by nature to have a son, my friends, but you have made it possible by legal enactment. Now there is this difference between the two methods — that a begotten son turns out to be whatever sort of person Heaven pleases, whereas one that is adopted a man takes to himself as the result of a deliberate selection.”

Cassius Dio – Roman History – Epitome of Book 69

We’re sailing eastward on a merchant ship, carried by the Hippalus winds. It’s no wonder that these monsoons are also known as trade winds, for by now, the bulk of Silk Road trade went by sea rather than over land. In southern Egypt a Buddha statue from the second century was discovered, as a testimony to the exchange of ideas along these routes.

After a journey of about 40 days, we arrive at Barygaza at the West Coast of India. Of course we brought along our first-century travel guide: The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.

“And for the King there are brought into those places very costly vessels of silver, singing boys, beautiful maidens for the harem, fine wines, thin clothing of the finest weaves, the choicest ointments”

Periplus of the Erythraean Sea – 49

Ivory, pepper, exotic spices and precious stones. Luxurious textiles, as well as more modest fabrics. All these, and much more, found their way into Roman homes.

Perhaps due to the prosperity this lucrative trade brought to India, the Kushan Empire continued to grow in power. The reign of Emperor Kanishka marked the height of this great empire. While his rule is generally placed in the early second century, perhaps between 127 and 140, the exact dates remain contested. This uncertainty highlights just how little we know about this once-great civilization.

Kanishka’s empire was a melting pot of different cultures. His many coins depict Buddhist and Hindu deities as well as Zoroastrian and Greek gods. They bear inscriptions not only in local languages, but also in Greek—a legacy of the campaigns that took Alexander the Great to India four centuries earlier.

One of the few texts we have from the Kushan period is the Rabatak Inscription, dating to the second century. The inscription highlights Kanishka’s effort to promote the Bactrian language, referred to as Aryan in the text. It is indeed written in Bactrian, while still using the Greek script. The inscription lists the names of Kushan rulers and reflects Kanishka’s vast territorial conquests, along with his portrayal as a god-like ruler.

Yet it is Kanishka’s patronage of Buddhism for which he is best remembered. For this reason, he is sometimes called the second Ashoka, the legendary king and promoter of Buddhism from the third century BC. But while Ashoka was essential to establishing Buddhism across the Indian subcontinent, Kanishka’s efforts helped transform it into a truly international religion.

In ancient Buddhist texts later written in China, the West is often cited as the origin of their teachings. From a Chinese perspective, the West meant India, where Mahayana Buddhism was gaining influence during Kanishka’s reign. Also known as the “Great Vehicle,” Mahayana Buddhism is most easily recognized by its magnificent Bodhisattvas. These saints are not yet Buddhas, but dedicated to helping others reach nirvana. In contrast, traditional Buddhism focuses more on the individual’s personal path to enlightenment.

In those days, Gandhara was the centre of Mahayana Buddhism. From there, a monk named Lokaksema headed to Luo Yang, the capital of Han China to become the first known translator of Mahayana scriptures into Chinese:

Doers of what is hard are the Bodhisattvas who have set out for the benefit and happiness of the world, out of pity for it. “We will become a shelter for the world, a refuge, the place of rest, the final relief, islands, lights and leaders of the world. We will win full enlightenment, and become the resort of the world,” – with these words they make a vigorous effort to win such a full enlightenment.

The Perfection of Wisdom in 8.000 Lines – XV Gods – How a Bodhisattva Helps Beings

We continue our journey to the east, until we encounter another wall in the north: the famous Great Wall of China. During the Han dynasty, it was not yet the mighty stone structure we recognize today, but rather a vast system of earthen fortifications, stretching over thousands of kilometers. It was meant to hold back the various northern tribes, but in this period, it was internal struggles that most troubled the empire.

More on that in the next episode.For now, we end with firts-century Chinese philosopher Wang Chong, as we can never get enough of his humorous critiques of popular beliefs. . We already saw how the Chinese zodiac, with its twelve signs, corresponds to other zodiacs worldwide. Just as remarkable is the way the Han Chinese saw the universe as composed of five elements, similar to the four elements of ancient Greek philosophy: earth, water, air and fire.

“Should anybody object by saying that men are much more precious than things, and that their vital spirit is different, we can reply that as a matter of fact, things can be metamorphosed, but man cannot, and that so far his vital spirit is on the contrary inferior to that of things, whose essence surpasses that of man. Water and fire drown and burn. All that can injure man must be a substance belonging to one of the five elements. Metal hurts man, wood beats him, earth crushes him, water drowns him, and fire burns him.”

Wang Chong – Lunheng – Chapter: On Death